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  • What is Project 17A?

    Himgiri, the first of the three stealth frigates being built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata, under Project 17A for the Navy, was launched into the water.

    Try this question:

    Q“To be secure on Land, we must be Supreme at Sea”. In this context, discuss why India is primarily a Maritime Nation?

    Project 17A

    • The coveted ‘Project 17A’ was cleared by the govt back in 2015.
    • It involves the building of seven stealth frigates at an estimated cost of Rs 50,000 crore.
    • Of these seven, the contract for three frigates was awarded to GRSE while the contract for another four frigates was awarded to Government-owned Mazagon Docks Limited (MDL) which is based in Mumbai.
    • These frigates will come armed with advanced state-of-the-art sensors and boast of top-notch stealth features.
    • They will represent the most advanced class of major surface warships for the Indian Navy in a decade, also featuring BrahMos supersonic surface-to-surface missiles.
    • These will also have torpedoes and rockets to hit submarines and rapid-fire guns to destroy anti-ship missiles as well as a heavy main gun to engage ships and coastal target.

  • Galaxy NGC 6240

    NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory shared the images of Galaxy NGC 6240 that contains two supermassive Black Holes in the process of merging.

    From astronomers to general space enthusiasts, black holes are a topic of interest for many. If you’re someone who spends a lot of their time researching facts about this region of space-time or watching videos on the same, then you must check out this news.

    Galaxy NGC 6240

    • The black holes, located in Galaxy NGC 6240 are 3,000 light-years apart and they will drift together to form a larger black hole millions of years from now.
    • As per a blog post by the observatory, the merging process began some 30 million years ago
    • The pairs of massive black holes in the process of merging are expected to be the most powerful sources of gravitational waves in the Universe.
    • Seen as the bright ‘dots’ near the centre of this image, the black holes are just 3,000 light-years apart.

    About Chandra X-ray Observatory

    • It is a telescope specially designed to detect X-ray emissions from very hot regions of the universe such as exploded stars, clusters of galaxies, and matter around black holes.
    • Orbiting at 139,000 km in space, the telescope was launched aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-93 by NASA in 1999.

  • Species in news: Himalayan Serow

    A Himalayan Serow has been sighted for the first time in the Himalayan cold desert region.

    Try this MCQ:

    Q.In which one of the following State, the Rupi Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary is located?

    (a) Himachal Pradesh

    (b) Manipur

    (c) Meghalaya

    (d) Uttarakhand

    Himalayan Serow

    • Himalayan Serow resembles a cross between a goat, a donkey, a cow, and a pig.
    • They are herbivores and are typically found at altitudes between 2,000 metres and 4,000 metres (6,500 to 13,000 feet).
    • They are known to be found in eastern, central, and western Himalayas, but not in the Trans Himalayan region.
    • They are a medium-sized mammal with a large head, thick neck, short limbs, long, mule-like ears, and a coat of dark hair.
    • There are several species of Serow s, and all of them are found in Asia.

    Its’ conservation status

    • According to the IUCN, Himalayan Serow s have experienced significant declines in population size, range size and habitat in the last decade, and this is expected to continue due to intensive human impact.
    • Previously assessed as ‘near threatened’, the Himalayan Serow is now been categorised as ‘vulnerable’ in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
    • It is listed under Schedule I of The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which provides absolute protection.

    What is so unusual this time?

    • The animal was spotted by locals and wildlife officials at a riverside rocky wall near Hurling village in Spiti, Himachal Pradesh.
    • This is the first recorded human sighting of the Serow in Himachal Pradesh.
    • Serow s are generally not found at this altitude, and never before has a Serow been seen in the Himalayan cold desert.
    • Wildlife officials believe this particular animal may have strayed into the Spiti valley from the Rupi Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary in adjoining Kinnaur.

  • 15th December 2020| Daily Answer Writing Enhancement

    Important Announcement:  Topics to be covered on 16th December

    GS-1 Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries.

    GS-4 Human Values.

    Question 1)

    Give an account of the distribution of different types of soils found in India. 10 marks

    Question 2)

    Discuss the concept of Contempt of Court. Explain in detail its different forms and also the rationale behind the provision. 10 marks

    Question 3)

    For a better growth in a free market economy, National Competition Policy is the need of the hour for India. Analyse. 10 marks

    Question 4)  

    With examples from your own life explain how educational institutions have helped you shape your morality? 10 marks

    Reviews will be provided in a week. (In the order of submission- First come first serve basis). In case the answer is submitted late the review period may get extended to two weeks.

    *In case your answer is not reviewed in a week, reply to your answer saying *NOT CHECKED*. If Parth Sir’s tag is available then tag him.

    For the philosophy of AWE and payment, check  here: Click2Join

  • Hazardous ideas for the Himalayas

    By planning hydropower projects, India and China are placing the region at great risk.

    China’s new hydropower project

    • Recently China announced that it is planning to build a major hydropower project as a part of its 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-25), on the YarlungZanbo River, in Mêdog County in Tibet.
    • The hydropower generation station is expected to provide 300 billion kWh of electricity annually.
    • The Chinese authorities say the project will help the country realize its goal of reaching a carbon emission peak before 2030 and carbon neutrality before 2060.

    Misadventures

    • Such ‘super’ dams projects are very unviable as they are being planned in an area that is geologically unstable.
    • There are two hydropower projects being built in Arunachal Pradesh on the tributaries of the Brahmaputra: the 600 MW Kameng project on the Bichom and Tenga Rivers and the 2,000 MW Subansiri Lower Hydroelectricity Project.
    • China has already completed 11 out of 55 projects that are planned for the Tibetan region. In this race, the two countries overestimate their economic potential and grossly underestimate the earthquake vulnerability of the region.
    • High seismic zones coincide with areas of high population concentration in the Himalayan region where landslides and glacial lake outburst floods are common.

    Practice Question:‘’Carbon neutrality should not be at the expense of the environment.” Elaborate with proper examples.

    Havocs created due to these earthquakes

    • About 15% of the great earthquakes of the 20th century (with a magnitude of more than 8) occurred in the Himalayan region.
    • The northeast Himalayan band has experienced several large earthquakes of magnitude 7 and above in the last 100 years, more than the share from other parts of the Himalayas.
    • The 1950 earthquake just south of the McMahon Line was of 6 magnitudes. It was the largest continental event ever recorded and devastated Tibet and Assam.
    • The earthquake killed thousands, and caused extensive landslides, widespread land level changes and gaping fissures. It resulted in water and mud oozing in the Himalayan ranges and the upper Assam valley.
    • The earthquake was felt over an extensive area comprising parts of India, Tibet, erstwhile East Pakistan and Myanmar.
    • The2015 Gorkha earthquake of magnitude 7.8 in central Nepal resulted in huge losses in the hydropower sector. Nepal lost about 20% of its hydropower capacity consequent to the earthquake.
    • About 30 projects with a capacity of 270 MW, mostly located along the steep river valleys, were damaged.

    What are the issues of high concern?

    • The main mechanisms that contributed to the vulnerability of hydropower projects were found to be landslides, which depend on the intensity of seismic ground shaking and slope gradients.
    • Heavy siltation from giant landslides expected in the project sites and headwater region from future earthquakes will severely reduce the water-holding capacity and life expectancy of such dams.
    • Even without earthquakes, the steep slopes made of soft rocks are bound to slide due to deforestation and road-building. These activities will get intensified as part of the dam-building initiatives.
    • Desilting of dams is not an economically viable proposition and is technologically challenging.

    A transnational asset under threat

    • The Himalayan range is a transnational mountain chain and is the chief driver of the Asian climate.
    • It is a source for numerous Asian river systems and glaciers which are now under the threat of degradation and retreat due to global warming; these river systems provide water for billions of people.
    • The ongoing low-level military confrontations between these two countries have led to demands for further infrastructural development on both sides, including all-weather roads, much to the peril of regional biodiversity and the livelihoods of the indigenous population.
    • The Himalayas have seen the highest rate of deforestation and land-use changes.

    Way Forward

    • There is a need for India and China to sit together to deliberate on the consequences of such misadventures in an area where massive earthquakes are bound to take place.
    • The upper Himalayas should be converted into a nature reserve by an international agreement.
    • The possibility of a Himalayan River Commission involving all the headwater and downstream countries needs to be explored.
    • There is a need to understand that – ‘’Carbon neutrality should not be at the expense of the environment’’.

  • Issues related to Nursing Sector in India

    The year 2020 has been designated as “International Year of the Nurse and the Midwife”.

    But the nursing education in India displays a grim situation. It suffers poor quality of training, inequitable distribution, and non-standardized practices.

    Nursing sector in India

    • Nurses and midwives will be central to achieving universal health coverage in India.
    • India’s nursing workforce is about two-thirds of its health workforce. Its ratio of 7 nurses per 1,000 population is 43% less than the World Health Organization norm; it needs 2.4 million nurses to meet the norm.
    • The sector is dogged by structural challenges that lead to poor quality of training, inequitable distribution, and non-standardized practices.

    Uneven regulation

    Nursing education in India has a wide array of certificate, diploma, and degree programmes for clinical and non-clinical nursing roles.

    • The Indian Nursing Council regulates nursing education through prescription, inspection, examination, and certification. 91% of the nursing education institutions are private and weakly regulated. The quality of training of nurses is diminished by the uneven and weak regulation.
    • The current nursing education is outdated and fails to cater to the practice needs. The education, including re-training, is not linked to the roles and their career progression in the nursing practice.
    • There are insufficient postgraduate courses to develop skills in specialities and address critical faculty shortages both in terms of quality and quantity.
    • These factors have led to gaps in skills and competencies, with no clear career trajectory for nurses.
    • Multiple entries point to the nursing courses and lack of integration of the diploma and degree courses diminish the quality of training.
    • A common entrance exam, a national licence exit exam for entry into practice, and periodic renewal of licence linked with continuing nursing education would significantly streamline and strengthen nursing education.
    • Transparent accreditation, benchmarking, and ranking of nursing institutions too would improve the quality.
    • The number of nursing education institutions has been increasing steadily but there are vast inequities in their distribution. Around 62% of them are situated in southern India.
    • There is little demand for postgraduate courses. Recognizing the need for speciality courses in clinical nursing 12 PG diploma courses were rolled out but the higher education qualification is not recognized by the recruiters.
    • The faculty positions vacant in nursing college and schools are around 86% and 80%, respectively.

    Gaps in education, services

    • There is a lack of job differentiation between diploma, graduate, and postgraduate nurses regarding their pay, parity, and promotion.
    • The higher qualifications are underutilized, leading to low demand for postgraduate courses.
    • Those with advanced degrees seek employment in educational institutions or migrate abroad which has led to an acute dearth of qualified nurses in the country.
    • Small private institutions with less than 50 beds recruit candidates without formal nursing education. They are offered courses of three to six months for non-clinical ancillary nursing roles and are paid very little.
    • The Indian Nursing Act primarily revolves around nursing education and does not provide any policy guidance about the roles and responsibilities of nurses in various cadres.
    • Nurses in India have no guidelines on the scope of their practice and have no prescribed standards of care and is a major reason for the low legitimacy of the nursing practice and the profession. This may endanger patient safety.
    • The Consumer Protection Act holds only the doctor and the hospital liable for medico-legal issues; nurses are out of the purview of the Act. This is contrary to the practices in developed countries where nurses are legally liable for errors in their work.

    Institutional reforms required

    1. The governance of nursing education and practice must be clarified and made current.
    2. The Indian Nursing Council Act of 1947must be amended to explicitly state clear norms for service and patient care, fix the nurse to patient ratio, staffing norms and salaries.
    3. The jurisdictions of the Indian Nursing Council and the State nursing councils must be explained and coordinated so that they are synergistic.
    4. Incentives to pursue advanced degrees to match their qualification, clear career paths, the opportunity for leadership roles, and improvements in the status of nursing as a profession should be done.
    5. A live registry of nurses, positions, and opportunities should be a top priority to tackle the demand-supply gap in this sector.
    6. The public-private partnership between private nursing schools/colleges and public health facilities is another strategy to enhance nursing education. NITI Aayog has recently formulated a framework to develop a model agreement for nursing education.
    7. The Government has also announced supporting such projects through a Viability Gap Funding.

    Practice Question:

    Q. Discuss the various issues related to nursing sector in India and measures to be taken to address them.

    A Bill that could spell hope

    • The disabling environment prevalent in the system has led to the low status of nurses in the hierarchy of health-care professionals. In fact, nursing has lost the appeal as a career option.
    • The National Nursing and Midwifery Commission Bill currently under consideration should hopefully address some of the issues highlighted.
    • These disruptions are more relevant than ever in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.

  • The roots of the agricultural crisis run deep

    The standoff between farmers and the government continues even after a few rounds of discussion.

    Un-timely reforms

    • Currently, the country was struggling with novel coronavirus-caused lockdowns, supply disruptions, job losses and falling incomes in an economy.
    • The reforms embedded in the three Acts are unlikely to help resolve the structural issues facing Indian agriculture, even their withdrawal is unlikely to change the ground reality.

    Farmers protest continues

    • The immediate trigger for the current protests is the enactment of the three Acts, on agricultural marketing, contract farming and stocking of agricultural produce, which deregulates the existing Acts on these.
    • Farmer unions have rejected the proposal and continue to demand complete withdrawal of the three Acts along with making MSP a guarantee.

    Government for negotiations

    • The latest proposal by the government indicates its willingness to amend the three agriculture-related Acts passed in September.
    • The government has proposed amendments which will empower the States to frame rules the contentious issues of registration of private traders, levy of taxes on trade outside the Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) mandis.
    • Similar assurances have been given on access to the judiciary for dispute resolution and continuation of the Minimum Support Price (MSP) mechanism.

    Many protests, one thread

    • The last four years have seen a series of large protests in most of the States.
    • For example, a group of farmers from Tamil Nadu camped in Delhi for over 100 days, Maharashtra was witness to the ‘Kisan Long March’ of farmers on more than one occasion, protests erupted in Rajasthan, UP, Haryana and MP.
    • The latest round of protests may have seen spirited protests from farmers from Punjab and Haryana but has found the support of farmers from the other States as well.
    • The common thread in all these protests — of declining agricultural incomes, stagnant wages and withdrawal of state support to agriculture.

    Changing faces of agriculture

    • The real issue is the lack of remunerative prices for a majority of agricultural commodities, a sharp increase in price variability in recent years, and an unpredictable and arbitrary government policy regime.
    • The other major problem is the changing nature of agriculture which has seen increased dependence on markets, increasing mechanization along with increasing monetization of the agrarian economy.
    • The increased dependence on markets has contributed to increasing variability in output prices.
    • Limited government intervention in protecting farmers’ income and stabilizing prices through MSP-led procurement operations made the increased variability in frequency as well as its spread.
    • Other than rice and wheat — and to some sporadic instances, of pulses — most crops suffer from inadequate intervention from MSP operations.
    • Even these procurement operations are unable to stabilize prices with falling demand and a slowing economy. For example, wheat has seen a steady decline in year-on-year inflation based on Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
    • Uneven nature of procurement in some states is also responsible to arrest the decline in prices. Crops like paddy, maize have seen in many States significantly lower market prices than the MSP.

    Factors behind vulnerability

    • Increasing mechanization and monetization have led to an increase in the cash requirement.
    • Most of these are met by non-institutional sources including middlemen which have contributed to the rising cost of cultivation and an increase in loan defaults.
    • The demand for loan waivers is unlikely to subside with the rising cost of inputs.
    • These trends have accentuated after 2010-11 when the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) for fertilizers regime led to an increase in fertilizer prices.
    • The withdrawal of diesel subsidy and a rise in electricity prices also contributed to making agriculture unviable.
    • The government has declined the agricultural investment in the first four years which resulted in rising input costs and falling output prices.
    • The shocks of demonetization and the lockdown only increased the uncertainty and vulnerability in the agricultural sector both on input and output prices.

    What lies ahead?

    • The demand for making MSP a guarantee for private trade is meaningless if the government is unable to ensure procurement for a majority of the 23 crops for which it announces MSP.
    • Thus, the withdrawal of the three Acts by the government will only seem to offer a temporary truce.

    Policy overhaul needed

    • The existing policy framework with an excessive focus on inflation management and obsession with the fiscal deficit will likely lead to lower support from the government either in price stabilization or reduction in the cost of cultivation through fiscal spending.
    • The agricultural sector needs a comprehensive policy overhaul to recognize the new challenges of agriculture which are diversifying and getting integrated with the non-agricultural sector.
    • This not only entails a better understanding of the structural issues but also innovative thinking to protect farmers’ livelihood from the uncertainty of these changes.
    • Above all, it requires financial support and institutional structures to support the agricultural sector and protect it. Only this can lead to the government’s dream of doubling the farmers’ income.
  • How to crack IAS 2021?| Also, things you need sorted before starting preparation for IAS 2022 | Fill Samanvaya-1 on 1 session with senior mentors

    How to crack IAS 2021?| Also, things you need sorted before starting preparation for IAS 2022 | Fill Samanvaya-1 on 1 session with senior mentors

    A well-informed start is always a good start.

    Talk to senior mentors from Civilsdaily: Click here and fill Samanvaya form for IAS 2021 and IAS 2022. (also provided at the bottom of this post).

    What is the best strategy for IAS 2021 and 2022 exams? How to start preparation? What does UPSC expect? How to cover the syllabus? How to connect current affairs with static? When to start answer writing? How to plan a daily schedule and then follow it..

    There are a number of similar questions that you must be facing. IAS preparation is not just about memorizing and information gathering. Before you start you need to get answers to these questions. (Read below about our three-tiered mentoring)

    More than 10.5 lakh applied, but only 796 are going to clear IAS 2020. It is going to be much more challenging in 2021 and 2022.

    We’ve had a discussion with 1800 aspirants who failed in Prelims 2020. Many had taken multiple attempts before that.

    Lack of direction, no guidance, inability to make required necessary changes in their preparation, and an absence of a well-defined strategy were issues common to all. (What issues are you facing? tell us)

    Prelims 2020 in many ways was a watershed moment for IAS aspirants. It has highlighted the changing nature of UPSC and to be successful you need to adapt to the expectations of UPSC and adopt a new approach.

    For 2021 aspirants, your preparation should be highly outcome-oriented (enabling you to fetch more marks). Every action of yours must be very objectively defined, every step as a part of your strategy. Whatever you are learning must be utilizable in the exam (both pre and mains). Your preparation should have an element of measurability.

    Moreover, you need to balance both Prelims and Mains on one hand and current-static-optional on the other. Fill Samanvaya form to know how it should be done.

    It’s about how ‘you’ should be doing it instead of how someone else did it. That is the ‘elephant in the room’.

    All this stands true for 2022 aspirants as well. This is the right time to start preparation.

    Fill Samanvaya form given at the bottom of this post.

    Broadly, six factors determine your success in cracking this prestigious IAS exam and the most important being understanding the expectations of UPSC and according to that planning and strategizing; other being, Learning – Knowledge and information; Analyzing – making linkages, connections, etc.; Executing and utilizing information; and Constant course correction – because mistakes are inevitable, need to rectify them asap. Get these in order before you start for IAS 2021/22.

    But how to do that? Read below how our three-tiered mentoring will help.

    Talk to senior mentors from Civilsdaily: Click here and fill Samanvaya form for IAS 2021/22

    Integrate them in your preparation. We’ll tell you how to do it.

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    This is where our 3 tier mentoring comes in:

    1. First step starts with this Samanvaya call: Once you fill in the form, our senior mentors will have a 1-to-1 detailed discussion (on-call) with you to understand your prep level, working/ study constraints, current strategies, and create a step by step plan for next week, next month and so on.

    2. You are given access to our invite-only chat platform, Habitat where you can connect with mentors, ask your daily doubts, discuss your test-prep questions and have real-time live sessions on news and op-eds, and find your optional groups.

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    3. The third and the most personalized tier is the dedicated 1 on 1 mentor allotment who stays with you through the course of your UPSC preparation – always-on chat and on scheduled calls to help you assess, evaluate, and chart the next milestone of your IAS 2021/2022 journey.

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  • Hydroponics: the art of soil-less farming

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in TH.

    Many questions related to agricultural techniques are being asked in the Prelims. UPSC has done away with traditional crop-related questions for the past two years. 

    For example, see this question from CSP 2020:

    Q.What are the advantages of fertigation in agriculture?

    1. Controlling the alkalinity of irrigation water is possible.
      2. Efficient application of Rock Phosphate and all other phosphatic fertilizers is possible.
      3. Increased availability of nutrients to plants is possible.
      4. Reduction in the leaching of chemical nutrients is possible.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (b) 1,2 and 4 only

    (c) 1,3 and 4 only

    (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

    What is hydroponics?

    Hydroponics is the cultivation of plants without using soil.

    • Hydroponic flowers, herbs, and vegetables are planted in inert growing media and supplied with nutrient-rich solutions, oxygen, and water.
    • This system fosters rapid growth, stronger yields, and superior quality.
    • When a plant is grown in soil, its roots are perpetually searching for the necessary nutrition to support the plant.
    • If a plant’s root system is exposed directly to water and nutrition, the plant does not have to exert any energy in sustaining itself.
    • The energy the roots would have expended acquiring food and water can be redirected into the plant’s maturation. As a result, leaf growth flourishes as does the blooming of fruits and flowers.

    Why Hydroponics?

    • Plants sustain themselves by a process called photosynthesis. But they do not need soil to photosynthesize.
    • They need the soil to supply them with water and nutrients.
    • When nutrients are dissolved in water they can be applied directly to the plant’s root system by flooding, misting, or immersion.
    • Hydroponic innovations have proven direct exposure to nutrient-filled water can be a more effective and versatile method of growth than traditional irrigation.

    How does hydroponics work?

    • Hydroponic systems work by allowing minute control over environmental conditions like temperature and pH balance and maximized exposure to nutrients and water.
    • It administers nutrient solutions tailored to the needs of the particular plant being grown.
    • They allow you to control exactly how much light the plants receive and for how long.
    • pH levels can be monitored and adjusted. In a highly customized and controlled environment, plant growth accelerates.

    Components of Hydroponics

    To maintain a flourishing hydroponic system, we need to become acquainted with a few components that make it run efficiently.

    (1) Growing media

    • Hydroponic plants are often grown in inert media that support the plant’s weight and anchor its root structure.
    • Growing media is the substitute for soil, however, it does not provide any independent nutrition to the plant.
    • Instead, this porous media retains moisture and nutrients from the nutrient solution which it then delivers to the plant.

    (2) Air stones and air pumps

    • Plants that are submerged in water can quickly drown if the water is not sufficiently aerated. Air stones disperse tiny bubbles of dissolved oxygen throughout your nutrient solution reservoir.
    • These bubbles also help evenly distribute the dissolved nutrients in the solution. Air stones do not generate oxygen on their own.
    • They need to be attached to an external air pump via opaque food grade plastic tubing

    (3) Net pots

    • Net pots are mesh planters that hold hydroponic plants. The latticed material allows roots to grow out of the sides and bottom of the pot, giving greater exposure to oxygen and nutrients.
    • Net pots also provide superior drainage compared to traditional clay or plastic pots.

    Benefits

    By controlling the environment of the plant in hydroponics, many risk factors are reduced:

    • Plants grown in gardens and fields are introduced to a host of variables that negatively impact their health and growth. Fungus in the soil can spread diseases to plants.
    • Wildlife like rabbits can plunder ripening vegetables from your garden.
    • Pests like locusts can descend on crops and obliterate them in an afternoon. Hydroponic systems end the unpredictability of growing plants outdoors and in the earth.
    • Without the mechanical resistance of the soil, seedlings can mature much faster.
    • By eliminating pesticides, hydroponics produces much healthier and high-quality fruits and vegetables. Without obstacles, plants are free to grow vigorously and rapidly.

    Various limitations

    • A hydroponic system isn’t cheap
    • Constant monitoring is required
    • Micro-organisms that are water-based can creep in rather easily
    • Growing a hydroponic garden demands an expertise
    • Production is limited compared to field conditions
    • If a disease appears, all plants in the system will be affected
    • Without soil to serve as a buffer if the system fails plant death will occur rapidly

  • Shola Sky Islands of the Western Ghats

    Tropical montane grasslands (TMG) in the Shola Sky Islands of the Western Ghats have suffered big losses due to invasions by exotic trees.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.In India, which type of forest among the following occupies the largest area?
    (a) Montane Wet Temperate Forest
    (b) Sub – tropical Dry Evergreen Forest
    (c) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
    (d) Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest

    Sky Islands

    • “Sky islands” are the tops of tall mountains that become environmentally isolated from each other even if they are close together, geographically speaking.
    • The Western Ghats are a mountain chain in southwest India home to spectacular and unique sky islands.
    • The peaks of the Western Ghats, ranging between 3,000 and 8,500 feet above sea level, host an almost unbelievable array of microclimates, looking like “patches of forests floating in a sea of grasslands.

    What are TMGs?

    • TMG are high elevation grasslands forming only 2% of all grasslands in the world.
    • Among their functions is regulating the global carbon cycle and serving as a source of water to downstream communities.
    • Researchers say grasslands do not benefit from conservation and restoration efforts afforded to tropical montane forests, possibly due to limited information.

    Treasures of Shola

    • One of the specific habitats unique to the sky islands of this area is a type of low-temperature, high-humidity tropical cloud forest full of stunted trees mixed with grasslands called the Shola.
    • The Shola forests of South derive their name from the Tamil word solai, which means a ‘tropical rain forest’.
    • Classified as ‘Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest’ the Sholas are found in the upper reaches of the Nilgiris, Anamalais, Palni hills, Kalakadu, Mundanthurai and Kanyakumari in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
    • These forests are found sheltered in valleys with sufficient moisture and proper drainage, at an altitude of more than 1,500 metres.

    Various threats to them

    • Loss of grasslands due to invasive exotic trees is a “novel threat” through the establishment and expansion of exotic tree plantations.
    • These exotic trees include acacias, pines and eucalyptus, shrinking the range sizes of endemic species, including plants, birds, amphibians and mammals.
    • In the Western Ghats, 23% of montane grasslands were reportedly converted into invasive exotic tree cover over a period of 44 years.
    • Attempts to manage invasive exotic trees in montane grasslands incorporated approaches that include prevention and mechanical, chemical and biological control.
    • For invasive species such as Acacia mearnsii that grow rapidly and disperse seeds widely, removing mature trees is often ineffective.

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