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Self-Help Groups are informal associations of people who choose to come together to find ways to improve their living conditions. They help to build Social Capital among the poor, especially women. The most important functions of a Self-Help Groups are:

1. To encourage and motivate its members to save
2. To persuade them to make a collective plan for generation of additional income
3. To act as a conduit for formal banking services to reach them

Such groups work as a collective guarantee system for members who propose to borrow from organised sources. Consequently, Self-Help Groups have emerged as the most effective mechanism for delivery of micro-finance services to the poor. The range of financial services may include products such as deposits, loans, money transfer and insurance.

 

Evolution of the SHG movement in India

The first organised initiative in this direction was taken in Gujarat in 1954 when the Textile Labour Association (TLA) of Ahmedabad formed its women’s wing to organise the women belonging to households of mill workers in order to train them in primary skills like sewing, knitting embroidery, typesetting and stenography etc.

In 1972, it was given a more systematized structure when Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) was formed as a Trade Union under the leadership of Ela Bhatt. She organised women workers such as hawkers, vendors, home based operators like weavers, potters, papad / agarbatti makers, manual labourers, service providers and small producers like cattle rearers, salt workers, gum collectors, cooks and vendors with the primary objective of

1. increasing their income and assets;
2. enhancing their food and nutritional standards; and
3. increasing their organisational and leadership strength.

The overall intention was to organise women for full employment. In order to broaden their access to market and technical inputs, these primary associations were encouraged to form federations like the Gujarat State Mahila SEWA Cooperative Federation, Banaskantha DWCRA, Mahila SEWA Association etc. Currently, SEWA has a membership strength of 9,59,000 which is predominantly urban.

In the 1980s, MYRADA – a Karnataka based non-governmental organisation, promoted several locally formed groups to enable the members to secure credit collectively and use it along with their own savings for activities which could provide them economically gainful employment.

Major experiments in small group formation at the local level were initiated in Tamil Nadu and Kerala about two decades ago through the Tamil Nadu Women in Agriculture Programme (TANWA) 1986, Participatory Poverty Reduction Programme of Kerala, (Kudumbashree) 1995 and Tamil Nadu Women’s Development Project (TNWDP) 1989. These initiatives gave a firm footing to SHG movement in these states. Today, around 44% of the total Bank- linked SHGs of the country are in the four southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

The positive experience gained from the above programmes has led to the emergence of a very strong consensus that the twin concepts of (a) small group organisation and (b) self-management are potent tools for economic and social empowerment of the rural poor. Efforts have been made almost in all parts of the country to adopt this model as a necessary component of the poverty alleviation programmes.

Forming small groups and linking them to bank branches for credit delivery has been the most important feature of the growth of the SHG movement in our country. The SHG-Bank linkage programme was started as a test project in 1989 when NABARD, the Apex Rural Development Bank in the country, sanctioned Rs.10.0 lakhs to MYRADA as seed money assistance for forming credit management groups.

In the same year, the Ministry of Rural Development provided financial support to PRADAN to establish Self-Help Groups in some rural pockets of Rajasthan. On the basis of these experiences, a full-fledged project involving a partnership among SHGs, Banks and NGOs was launched by NABARD in 1992.

In 1995, acting on the report of a working group, the RBI streamlined the credit delivery procedure by issuing a set of guidelines to Commercial Banks. It enabled SHGs to open Bank Accounts based on a simple inter-se agreement. The scheme was further strengthened by a standing commitment given by NABARD to provide refinance and promotional support to Banks for credit disbursement under the SHG – Bank linkage programme. NABARD’s corporate mission was to make available microfinance services to 20 million poor households, or one-third of the poor in the country, by the end of 2008.

In the initial years, the progress in the programme was a slow; only 33000 groups could be credit linked during the period 1992-99. But, thereafter, the programme grew rapidly and the number of SHGs financed increased from 82000 in 1999-2000 to more than 6.20 lakhs in 2005-06 and 6.87 lakhs in 2006-07. Cumulatively, 33 million poor households in the country have been able to secure access to micro-finance from the formal banking system.

 

Agencies involved in the SHG movement

Apart from NABARD, there are four other major organisations in the public sector which too provide loans to financial intermediaries for onward lending to SHGs. They are (a) Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), (b)RashtriyaMahilaKosh (RMK), (c) Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) and(d) then, there are public sector/other commercial banks which are free to take up any lending as per their policy and RBI guidelines.

 

RashtriyaMahilaKosh

The RashtriyaMahilaKosh was set up by the Government of India in March 1993 as an Autonomous Body registered under Societies Registration Act, 1860 under the Department (now Ministry) of Women and Child Development. The objective was to facilitate credit support to poor women for their socio-economic upliftment. It was felt that the credit needs of poor women, especially those in the unorganized sector, were not adequately addressed by the formal financial institutions of the country. Thus RMK was established to provide loans in a quasi-formal credit delivery mechanism, which is client-friendly, has simple and minimal procedure, disburses quickly and repeatedly, has flexible repayment schedules, links thrifts and savings with credit and has relatively low transaction costs both for the borrower and the lender. The Kosh lends with a unique credit delivery model “RMK – NGO-SHG- Beneficiaries”. The support is extended through NGO’s, Women Development Corporations, State Government agencies like DRDA’s, Dairy Federations, and Municipal Councils etc.

 

SIDBI

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) launched its micro finance programme on a pilot basis in 1994 using the NGO / MFI model of credit delivery wherein such institutions were used as financial intermediaries for delivering credit to the poor and unreached, mainly women. Learning from the experience of the pilot phase, SIDBI reoriented and upscaled its micro finance programme in 1999. A specialised department viz. ‘SIDBI Foundation for Micro Credit’ (SFMC) was set up with the mission to create a national network of strong, viable and sustainable Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) from the informal and formal financial sectors. SFMC serves as an apex wholesaler for micro finance in India providing a complete range of financial and non-financial services to the MFIs so as to facilitate their development into financially sustainable entities, besides developing a network of service providers and advocating for appropriate policy framework for the sector. SFMC is implementing the National Micro Finance Support Programme (NMFSP). The overall goal of NMFSP is to bring about substantial poverty elimination and reduced vulnerability in India amongst users of micro-finance services, particularly women.

 

Private Initiatives:

Though, government efforts have played a major role in advancing the SHG movement in the country, there has been a large number of voluntary organisations (NGOs) which too have facilitated and assisted SHGs in organizing savings and credit in different parts of India. SEWA in Ahmedabad, MYRADA in Karnataka, Nav Bharat Jagriti Kendra and Ramakrishna Mission in Jharkhand, and ADITHI in Bihar are some of the names which took the lead in promoting Self-Help Groups (mostly of women) around income generation activities using local skills. From organizing villagers into groups which could work on viable activities, to making a project and securing funds (own contribution or through a tie-up with the financial institution), these VOs have worked with involvement and dedication. PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action), DHAN Foundation, ASSEFA (Association of SarvaSeva Farms, MALAR (Mahalir Association for Literacy, Awareness and Rights), SKS, Janodaya, Cohesion Foundation and Jan ChetnaSansthan are some of the other major non-governmental institutions which are promoting and nurturing a large number of SHGs of poor people, mostly women into effective organisations which could leverage credit from formal sources, and develop local resources and skills to increase productivity and income. It is thus, due to the combined efforts of the government and these private voluntary agencies that the SHGs have come to occupy a place of prominence in the socio-economic fabric of rural India.

 

Impact of SHGs on rural life

A random impact evaluation study covering 560 members of 223 SHGs linked to Banks located in 11 States was carried out by NABARD. A three year period was selected for this study. The results of this survey released in 200018 indicated that

1. 1. 58% of the households covered under SHGs reported an increase in assets;
   2. the average value of assets per household increased by 72% from Rs.6,843 to Rs.11,793;
   3. majority of the members developed savings habit against 23% earlier;
   4. there was a threefold increase in savings and a doubling of borrowings per household;
   5. the share of consumption loan in the borrowing went down from 50% to 25%;
   6. 70% of the loans taken in post-SHG period went towards income generation ventures;
   7. employment expanded by 18%;
   8. the average net income per household before joining a SHG was Rs.20,177 which rose by 33% to 26,889; and
   9. about 41.5% of the household studied were below their state specific poverty line in the pre-SHG enrolment stage; it came down to 22%.

Participation in group activity significantly contributed to improvement of self-confidence among the members. In general, group members and particularly women became more vocal and assertive on social and family issues. The structure of the SHG is meant to provide mutual support to the participants in saving money, preparing a common plan for additional income generation and opening bank accounts that would help them in developing credit relationship with a lending institution. It ultimately supports them in setting up micro-enterprises e.g. personalized business ventures like tailoring, grocery, and tool repair shops. It promotes the concept of group accountability ensuring that the loans are paid back. It provides a platform to the community where the members can discuss and resolve important issues of mutual concern.

While some of the SHGs have been initiated by the local communities themselves, many of them have come through the help of a mentor Body (either government or an NGO) which provided initial information and guidance to them.

Such support often consists of training people on how to manage Bank accounts, how to assess small business potential of the local markets and how to upgrade their skills. In the end, it creates a local team of resource persons.

Group formation becomes a convenient vehicle for credit delivery in rural areas. Commercial Banks and other institutions which are otherwise not receptive to the demands of marginalized individuals, start considering such groups as their potential customers. Overall such Joint-Liability Groups expand the outreach of the micro-finance programme in an effective way, reaching out to the excluded segments e.g. landless, sharecroppers, small and marginal farmers, women, SCs/STs etc.

The majority of Self-Help Groups comprise of women members. There is evidence in this country as well as elsewhere that formation of Self-Help Groups has a multiplier effect in improving women’s status in society as well as in the family. Their active involvement in micro-finance and related entrepreneurial activities not only leads to improvement in their socio-economic condition but also enhances their self-esteem.

Women in a group environment become more articulate in voicing their concerns and a change occurs in their self-perception. They start to see themselves not only as beneficiaries but also as clients / informed citizens seeking better services. On the home front, their new found awareness and the confidence generated out of their entrepreneurial skills make them more confident vis-à-vis their menfolk.

The SHG programme has contributed to a reduced dependency on informal money lenders and other non- institutional sources. It has enabled the participating households to spend more on education than non- client households. Families participating in the programme have reported better school attendance and lower drop-out rates.

The financial inclusion attained through SHGs has led to reduced child mortality, improved maternal health and the ability of the poor to combat disease through better nutrition, housing and health – especially among women and children.

Weaknesses of the SHG movement

But the SHG movement has certain weaknesses as well:

1. 1. Contrary to the vision for SHG development, members of a group do not come necessarily from the poorest families;
   2. the SHG model has led to definite social empowerment of the poor but whether the economic gains are adequate to bring a qualitative change in their life is a matter of debate;
   3. many of the activities undertaken by the SHGs are still based on primitive skills related mostly to primary sector enterprises. With poor value addition per worker and prevalence of subsistence level wages, such activities often do not lead to any substantial increase in the income of group members.
   4. There is lack of qualified resource personnel in the rural areas who could help in skill upgradation/acquisition of new skills by group members.

 

Key issues facing SHGs today

Though, during a short span of fifteen years the SHG movement has recorded remarkable progress much still remains to be done. The movement shows steep territorial variations. Many areas of the country lack adequate banking structure. Urban and semi-urban areas, to a large extent, stand excluded from this mode of credit delivery. Further growth of this movement faces threat from inadequacy of skills in the rural areas. And finally the pace of the movement needs to be accelerated. The following eight issues of this sector deserve priority attention:

1. 1. Maintaining the participatory character: We saw the cooperative sector became a springboard for political aspirants. Though the SHG movement is relatively new, government interventions and subsidies have already started showing negative results. The patronage and subsidies provided to the SHGs by government and the Panchayats often lead to their politicization. Therefore, due care must be taken to ensure that government initiatives do not erode the fundamental principles of self-help and empowerment of the poor.

Need to expand the SHG movement to States such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and in the North-East (where the SHG movement and micro-finance entrepreneurship is weak):

Overall 73% of the farmer household (in rural areas) have no access to any formal source of credit. In March, 2001, 71% of the total linked SHGs of the country were in just four States of the southern region viz. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The figure went down to 58% in 2005, 54% in 2006 and to 44% in 2007. But even the current figure is a cause of concern when one talks of financial inclusion for the whole country.

1. Need to extend small group organisations (SHGs) to peri-urban and urban areas:

According to the 2001 census, 314.54 million persons changed their place of residence (vis-à-vis the situation in the 1991 census) within the country and out of this 29.90 million or 9% changed their place of residence in search of better prospects elsewhere.

Since issue of any form of identity card is invariably linked with the possession of an immovable property, such migrant workers do not have any formal document to prove their domicile in the city. But the overall economic and social well-being of the city is closely linked with the condition of this section of the city dwellers. In the absence of any documentary proof, it appears that this class of people do not have access to organised financial services.

As per the existing statutory provisions, NABARD’s mandate is to provide micro-finance facilities only to rural and semi-urban areas. Branches of the mainstream Banks too, though, equipped with manpower and technology, are not keen to service this sector. Even money lenders are reluctant to lend to them.

The net result is that this segment of the urban population e.g. pavement sellers, street hawkers, construction workers etc. remains financially excluded.

 

Mode of SHG development and financial intermediation:

Establishing stable linkage between a SHG and a local financial institution is one of the key elements of the SHG movement. Currently, four distinct models of financial intermediation are in operation in various parts of the country namely:

1. 1. SHG-Bank linkage promoted by a mentor institute
   2. SHG-Bank direct linkage
   3. SHG-Mentor Institution linkage; and
   4. SHG-Federation model

Since the borrowing SHGs consist mainly of low income members who cannot afford to miss even a day’s wages, a hassle-free transaction with a Bank which is ready to come to their doorsteps with appropriate credit products is of great value to them. The SHG – Bank Linkage Model with a mentor SHPI in tow (Model I above) would be the most appropriate one for delivery of financial services to the SHGs.

 

Self-Help Groups and Regional Rural Banks:

As on 1st April, 2007, out of a total of 622 districts in the country, 535 have a network of Regional Rural Banks; the rest 87 districts have no RRB presence. These branches have been created by the Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976 primarily for providing institutional credit to the marginalized sector of the rural economy (small, marginal farmers, landless labour and rural artisans). Theextension of the RRB network to the remaining 87 districts would considerably speed up the process of inclusive banking and help in extending micro- finance to local SHGs.

 

Issues of sustainability:

The institutional sustainability and the quality of operations of the SHGs are matters of considerable debate. It is generally held that only a minority of the Self-Help Groups are able to raise themselves from a level of micro-finance to that of micro-entrepreneurship. Neither do such Bank linkages lead to sanction of larger individual loans under the Bank’s normal lending programmes. The ultimate objective of such a tie-up is to impart financial strength to the SHGs so that they can enter into a stable relationship with the local financial institutions – without any external support. Even after many years of existence, by and large, SHGs are heavily dependent on their promoter NGOs or government agencies

 

Financial assistance to SHPIs and other support institutions:

Forty-five per cent of the total numbers of women SHGs of the country are located in Andhra Pradesh. This enviable position of the State is primarily due to the initiative shown by promoter NGOs often known as Self-Help Promoting Institutions (SHPIs) / mentor organisations. If the SHG movement is to spread across the entire country, there is need to provide major incentives to SHPIs / promoter NGOs. Currently, the financial support to SHPIs comes from the Micro Finance Development and Equity Fund (MFDEF) of NABARD. It is limited to an amount of Rs.1500 per SHG (formed and activated). To attract more and more SHPIs to the rural areas, this quantum of support needs to be revised.

 

Role of Micro-Finance Institutions:

Micro-credit is defined as provision of thrift, credit, and other financial services (such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfer, insurance and related products) of very small amounts to the poor in rural, semi-urban and urban areas for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve living standards. Micro-finance institutions are those which provide such micro-credit facilities. Micro-credit is an instrument of both social as well as economic policy. It opens up integral development processes such as use of financial and technical resources, basic services and training opportunities to the unprivileged. Access to savings, credit, money- transfer, payment, and insurance can help poor people take control of their financial life. It also empowers them to make critical choices about investing in business, sending children to school, improving health care of the family, covering the cost of key social obligations and unforeseen situations. But the most important of all, an access to finance generates self- esteem among them.

ARC-2 has made the following recommendations and the Micro Finance Sector (Development and Regulation) Bill, 2007 needs to be amended to include the following suggestions:-

1. 1. The scope of Micro-finance Services should be substantially widened to cover credit / savings, insurance, pension services, money transfer, issue / discount of warehouse receipts and future / option contracts for agricultural commodities and forest produce.
   2. The activities of Section 25 Companies to the extent they concern micro-financial services as described under the proposed Bill should also be brought under the purview of this legislation. However, for their management and other functions, they will continue to be governed by the provisions of the Companies Act.
   3. The issue of interest rate charged by the MFIs should be left to the Regulatory Authority which is being created under the proposed Bill.
   4. It should be ensured that if MFIs are allowed to handle thrift / savings and money transfer services, they would do so only as business correspondents of commercial Banks.

 

To be considered part of the non-profit sector the entity must be

• Organisational – an institution with some meaningful structure and permanence;
• Non-governmental – not part of the apparatus of government;
• Non-profit-distributing – not permitted to distribute profits to its owners or directors. They are required to be ploughed back in the organisation
• Self-governing – not controlled by some entity outside the organisation; and
• Supportive of some public purpose.

While all organisations that meet these five criteria are part of the generic non-profit sector, they may formally be placed into two distinct categories.

• First category consists of pure member-centric Bodies. While serving some public purpose, they primarily exist for taking care of the interests, needs and desires of their own members.

The examples are social / welfare clubs, business associations, labour unions, Professional bodies and political parties.

• Second category consists of public-serving organisations which are formed to serve the needs of the general public.

The examples are charitable grant-making institutions, religious formations, and a wide range of educational, scientific and other related service organisations whose activities may range from running orphanages and old age homes to managing advocacy groups on current issues.

 

The Indian Constitution provides a distinct legal space to social capital / civil society institutions:

• through its Article on the right to form associations or unions – Article 19 (1)(c);
• through Article 43 which talks of States making endeavor to promote cooperatives in rural areas;
• through explicit mention in entries made in Schedule 7.

 

Civil Society as a Major Economic Force

With liberalisation of the economy and globalisation, there has been a phenomenal growth in the number of non-governmental organisations across the world in the last few decades. They are further supported by a large number of unpaid volunteers who have strong individual initiative and commitment to social responsibility.

 

The presence of NGOs ensures

• depth and resilience in civil society
• expression to citizens’ voices
• enables them to take responsibility for how their society is performing
• allows them to talk to their government in organised ways.

 

There are more than two million such organisations registered under the Societies / Trusts Acts in the country. This includes a wide diversity of local youth clubs, mahila mandals, private schools, old age homes and hospitals. In recent years, even government organisations like DRDA and District Health Society have been registered as Societies. Such a vast network of socio-economic institutions has the potential to play an important role in many key governmental policy objectives:

• It can help to scale up productivity and competitiveness.
• It can contribute to inclusive wealth creation.
• Enhance the people centricity of the government.

Civil society organisations promote cooperation between two or more individuals through mutual cohesion, common approach and networking. Democracies inherently encourage such cooperative behaviour. In the current model of economic growth, the voluntary/ civil society sector has been recognized as a key player in achieving equitable, sustainable and inclusive development goals.

Both the State as well as the market-led models of development has been found to be inadequate and there is an increasing realisation that active involvement of the voluntary sector is needed in the process of nation building. They are now viewed as partners in progress.

Civil society organisations function outside the conventional space of both State and Market, but they have the potential to negotiate, persuade and pressurise both these institutions to make them more responsive to the needs and rights of the citizens. Voluntary Organisations can offer:

• alternative perspectives
• committed expertise
• an understanding of the local opportunities and constraints
• capacity to conduct a meaningful dialogue with communities, particularly those that are disadvantaged.

It is therefore essential that the Government and the Voluntary Sector work together. Based on the law under which they operate and the kind of activities they take up, civil society groups in our country can be classified into following broad categories:-

• Registered Societies formed for specific purposes
• Charitable Organisations and Trusts
• Local Stakeholders Groups, Microcredit and Thrift Enterprises, SHGs
• Professional Self-Regulatory Bodies
• Cooperatives
• Bodies without having any formal organisational structure
• Government promoted Third Sector Organisations

The voluntary sector has contributed significantly to finding innovative solutions to poverty, deprivation, discrimination and exclusion, through means such as awareness raising, social mobilization, service delivery, training, research, and advocacy. The voluntary sector has been serving as an effective non-political link between the people and the Government.

 

National Policy on Voluntary Sector 

Encourage, enable and empower an independent, creative and effective voluntary sector, with diversity in form and function, so that it can contribute to the social, cultural and economic advancement of the people of India. Objectives of the policy are:

• To create an enabling environment for VOs that stimulates their enterprise and effectiveness, and safeguards their autonomy;
• To enable VOs to legitimately mobilize necessary financial resources from India and abroad;
• To identify systems by which the Government may work together with VOs, on the basis of the principles of mutual trust and respect, and with shared responsibility
• To encourage VOs to adopt transparent and accountable systems of governance and management.

 

Different types of civil society organizations

1. Civil rights advocacy organizations: to promote human rights of specific social groups e.g. women, migrants, disabled, HIV, sex workers, Dalit people, tribal people, and the likes.
2. Civil liberties advocacy organizations: to promote individual civil liberties and human rights of all citizens, rather than focusing on particular social group.
3. Community based organizations, citizens’ groups, farmers’ cooperatives: to increase citizen’s participation on public policy issues so as to improve the quality of life in a particular community.
4. Business and industry chambers of commerce: to promotion policies and practices on business.
5. Labour unions: to promote the rights of employees and workers.
6. International peace and human rights organizations: to promote peace and human rights.
7. Media, communication organization: to produce, disseminate, or provide production facilities in one or more media forms; it includes television, printing and radio.
8. National resources conservation and protection organizations: to promote conservation of natural resources, including land, water, energy, wildlife and plant resources, for public use.
9. Private and public foundations: to promote development through grant- making and partnership.
10. Also the Civil society includes – Political Parties; Religious Organizations; Housing cooperatives, slum dwellers and resident welfare associations.

 

Non-Government Organisation

NGOs are legally constituted organizations, operate independently from the government and are generally considered to be “non-state, non-profit oriented groups who pursue purposes of public interest”. The primary objective of NGOs is to provide social justice, development and human rights. NGOs are generally funded totally or partly by governments and they maintain their non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization.

In a democratic society, it is the state that has the ultimate responsibility for ushering development to its citizens. In India, through the progressive interpretation of the Constitution and its laws and policies, the scope of development has been significantly broadened to include not just economic progress for citizens, but also promotion of social justice, gender equity, inclusion, citizen’s awareness, empowerment and improved quality of life. To achieve this holistic vision of development, the state requires the constructive and collaborative engagement of the civil society in its various developmental activities and programs. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as the operational arm of the civil society therefore have an important role in the development processes.

 

Interaction and relationship between the Indian state and NGOs

In India the state policies have significantly influenced the formation of NGOs and their activities. The government sponsored and aided programmes provided financial assistance to NGOs either as grants or as matching grants to support the implementation of social development projects. The need for the involvement of voluntary organizations has been acknowledged by a number of official committees dealing with development.

1. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, 1957: Today in the implementation of the various schemes of community development, more and more emphasis is laid on NGOs and workers and on the principle that ultimately people’s own local organisations should take over the entire work.
2. Rural-Urban Relationship Committee, 1966: Local voluntary organisations can be very helpful in mobilizing popular support and assistance of the people in the activities of local body. It is possible to maintain constant and close contact with the people through these organizations.
3. Ashok Mehta Committee: Of the several voluntary organisations engaged in rural welfare, a few have helped the PRIs in preparation of area development plans, conduct feasibility studies and cost/benefit analysis, explore ways and means to induce local participation in planning and implementation.
4. In the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985), the government identified new areas in which NGOs as new actors could participate in development.
5. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985- 1990), envisioned a more active role for NGOs as primary actors in the efforts towards self-reliant communities. This was in tune with the participatory and empowerment ideologies, which was gaining currency in the developmental discourse at that time.
6. Government support and encouragement for NGOs continued in the Eighth Five- year plan, where a nation-wide network of NGOs was sought to be created.
7. The Ninth Five-year plan proposed that NGOs should play a role in development on the public-private partnership model. Also, the agricultural development policies of the government and its implementation mechanisms provided scope and space for NGOs. A case in point is the watershed development program, which has led to the growth of NGOs working for rural development.
8. In March 2000, the Government declared Planning Commission as the nodal agency for GO-NGO interface. The message was clear- government has to and will work with the voluntary sector. A ‘Civil Society Window’ was started in 2004, in the hope that it would enable people to engage with the Planning Commission and offer the benefit of their field experiences.
9. During the 11th Five Year Plan process a regional consultation was organised to get civil society feedback. Participation of Civil Society (CS) had thus already become a strong and robust element in the preparation of the Plan Consultations with citizens on the Approach Paper to the 12th Plan began on many platforms, including the internet.

Members of Planning Commission travelled across the country attending Public Meetings called by CS around various sectoral issues to gather inputs for the 12 Five Year Plan National Policy on the Voluntary Sector, 2007:

Recognizes the contribution of the voluntary sector and the need for Government- Voluntary Sector partnership and that project grants are a useful means for both the Government to promote its activities without its direct involvement and a valuable source of support to small and medium Voluntary Organizations.

It highlights the need for Government to encourage all Central and State Government agencies to introduce pre-service and in-service training modules on constructive relations with voluntary organizations.

It recognizes the difficulties faced by the voluntary sector in accessing government schemes and suggests ways to tackle this.

The main objective of the National Policy on the Voluntary Sector is to identify systems by which the Government may work together with the Voluntary Organizations on the basis of the principles of mutual trust, respect and shared responsibility. It also recognizes the importance of independence of voluntary organizations, which allows them to explore alternative models of development. The National Policy on the Voluntary Sector is just the beginning of the process to evolve a new working relationship between the government and the voluntary sector without affecting its autonomy and identity. There are many areas in which help of the voluntary sector is sought- for social audits, behaviour change, good governance and increasingly even for better service delivery.

 

Benefits of India from NGOs

India has a long history of civil society based on the concepts of “daana” means giving and “seva” means service. Voluntary organizations were active in cultural promotion, education, health, and natural disaster relief as early as the medieval period. During the second half of the 19th century, nationalist consciousness spread across India and self-help emerged as the primary focus of socio-political movements. The early examples of such attempts are Friend-in-Need Society (1858), Prathana Samaj (1864), Satya Shodhan Samaj (1873), Arya Samaj (1875), the National Council for Women in India (1875), the Indian National Conference (1887) etc. The Society’s Registration Act (SRA) was approved in 1860 to confirm the legal status of the growing body of non-governmental organizations.

1. The NGOs focus on the search for alternatives to development thinking and practice
2. it creates an atmosphere of participatory research, community capacity building and creation of demonstrable models.
3. Many NGOs have worked hard to include children with disability in schools, end caste- based stigma and discrimination, prevent child labour and promote gender equality resulting in women receiving equal wages for the same work compared to men.
4. During natural calamities they have played an active role in relief and rehabilitation efforts, in particular, providing psycho-social care and support to the disaster affected children, women and men.
5. NGOs have been instrumental in the formation and capacity building of farmers and producers’ cooperatives and women’s self- help groups.
6. NGOs have implemented the Jeevan Dhara programme for creation of wells for safe drinking water; promoted community toilets for total sanitation, and supported the public health programs on immunisation and for eliminating tuberculosis and malaria.
7. NGOs have significantly influenced the development of laws and policies on several important social and developmental issues such as the right to information, juvenile justice, ending corporal punishment in schools, anti-trafficking, forests and environment, wildlife conservation, women, elderly people, people with disability, rehabilitation and resettlement of development induced displaced people to name a few.
8. NGOs can and should play the “game changer” to pro-poor development through leadership on participatory research, community empowerment and search for development alternatives.
9. Further, the industrial policies have influenced the formation and relations between the businesses and NGOs.
10. The emphasis of industrial policies on the promotion and development of small, cottage and village industries has also lead to the formation of agencies such as the Khadi and Village Industries Commission, Small Industries Associations and likes.

 

Profiling NGOs:

India has possibly the largest number of active non-government, non-profit organizations in the world. There has been a sharp increase in the number of new NGOs in the past decade in India.

According to a government study, there were only 1.44 lakh registered societies till 1970. The maximum increase in the number of registrations happened after 2000. A recent study commissioned by the government showed that there are about 3.3 million NGOs in India by the end of 2009 i.e., one NGO for less than an average of 400 Indians. Even this staggering number may be less than the actual number of NGOs active in the country.

This is because the study, commissioned in 2008, took into consideration only those entities which were registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or the Mumbai Public Trust Act and its variants in other states.

It can be noted that a great majority of the NGOs are small and about three-fourths of all NGOs are run entirely by volunteers. About 13 percent of the NGOs have between 2 to 5 employees; about 5 percent have between 6 to 10 employees and only about 8.5 percent NGOs employ more than 10 people.

According to a survey conducted by society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA), 73.4 percent of NGOs have one or no paid staff, although across the country, more than 19 million persons work as volunteers or paid staff at an NGO.

More often NGOs are registered as trusts, societies, or as private limited non-profit companies, under Section- 25 of Indian Companies Act, 1956. They also enjoy income tax exemption. Foreign contributions to non-profits are governed by Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA), 1976.

 

Challenges facing NGOs

In view of the emergence of a new paradigm of scaling up, in which NGOs are seen as catalysts of policy innovations and social capital; as creators of programmatic knowledge that can be spun off and integrated into government and market institutions; and as builders of vibrant and diverse civil societies, it’s imperative to critically analyze the role of NGOs in the process of development and understanding the challenges facing the sector.

1. Transparency and accountability are key ingredients of Governance in the NGO Sector as these determine operational efficiencies and risk mitigation. Over the years, corporate sector has been able to recognize and implement best governance practices through appropriate institutional framework. However, the NGO sector is yet to evolve any institutionalized framework, which could potentially play an important role in overall development of the nation.
2. Of late, some of the local and national NGOs have been found involved in malpractices and acting irresponsibly, thus undermining the credibility of civil society. It’s a huge concern and poses a great challenge to the development movement spearheaded by NGOs in the country.
3. There is a huge flow of funds into the non-government organization sector and this requires prudence and good practices to maintain accountability and transparency to the benefit of all stakeholders.
4. Although NGOs do internal auditing but for more accountability and transparency, it is advisable to go through external auditing also, especially where public funds are involved. Hence, issues of internal control mechanisms, professionalism, accountability, transparency and financial management must be given impetus.
5. The challenge is multidimensional, and is compounded by the ‘unorganised’ nature of the sector, lack of regulatory frameworks and the fact that India boasts of more than a million NGOs of different roles, structures and sizes.
6. In particular, the Indian voluntary sector urgently needs self-regulatory guidelines and transparency mechanisms to increase the trust and awareness as to how the philanthropic funds are being utilised.
7. The general lack of transparency in the functioning of a large proportion of NGOs leads to aversion in donating funds for charitable causes since the general public is largely cynical about the ‘genuineness’ of the non-profit spirit of the sector.
8. The stringent governance standards of an NGO will facilitate the effective management and increase the accountability to its stakeholders including donors, the government and the community.
9. It is in the self-interest of the NGOs to realize the fact that to implement a structure of ‘corporate governance’ principles would provide the real value to the stakeholders. Also, this would enable to track the potentially dubious sources of funding coming in for the voluntary sector – an aspect which has gained impetus in the wake of the increased number of terror attacks and extremist activities.
10. Recently, the Union Home Ministry has identified some NGOs as security threat to the country. Such security considerations have underscored the rising need of improving the governance practices in the Indian NGOs and exercising better regulatory mechanisms, disclosure norms, and management processes including financial management and budgeting systems as well.

Suggestions

1. The implementation of a strategic framework is essentially important in the management of an NGO. The endorsement of such a framework brings in professionalism and internal control mechanisms, which further makes the organization’s performance more effective.
2. Developing strategies also include establishing a mechanism of consistent monitoring of whether they are being implemented and linking the results to the organization’s goals.
3. There is need to bolster public confidence in the voluntary sector by opening it up to greater public scrutiny.
4. The Government should encourage Central and State level agencies to introduce norms for filing basic documents in respect of NGOs, which have been receiving funding by Government agencies and placing them in the public domain (with easy access through the internet) in order to inculcate a spirit of public oversight.
5. Public donation is an important source of funds for the NGO sector and one that can and must increase substantially. Tax incentives play a positive role in this process. The Government could simplify and streamline the system for granting income tax exemption status to charitable projects under the Income Tax Act.
6. The Government may consider tightening administrative and penal procedures to ensure that these incentives are not misused by paper charities for private financial gain.
7. The Government should encourage all relevant Central and State Government agencies to introduce pre-service and in-service training modules on constructive relations with the voluntary sector. Such agencies need to introduce time bound procedures for dealing with the VOs. These could cover registration, income tax clearances, financial assistance, etc.
8. There must be a formal system for registering complaints and for redressing grievances of NGOs.
9. The Government should encourage setting up of Joint Consultative Groups / Forums or Joint Machineries of government and voluntary sector representatives, by relevant Central Departments and State Governments.
10. It also needs to encourage district administrations, district planning bodies, district rural development agencies, zila parishads and local governments to do so. These groups could be permanent forums with the explicit mandate to share ideas, views and information and to identify opportunities and mechanisms of working together.
11. The Government also might introduce suitable mechanisms for involving a wide cross-section of the voluntary sector in these Groups/Forums.

Conclusion

We are entering into an important phase where there are many targets that the government intends to achieve with the active collaboration of VOs, in the 12th plan. Therefore, it is important to conduct an effective review or report card of the National Policy with specific recommendations.

These recommendations could become an agenda for all Voluntary Organizations, Planning Commission, state governments and national Ministries. Efforts are also needed to further disseminate the information about the policy and its intentions with small VOs as well as government functionaries.

There is a need to solicit commitment from state governments and national ministries. A systematic intervention is also needed to get National Policy approved and adopted by the Indian Parliament. The most serious challenge faced by India today is the conflict between violent and non-violent approach of development.

Needless to say that majority of population of India is still deprived of basic fruits of development, but rather than adopting the approach which is more inclusive and look for solutions within the constitution, India is faced by disturbances in many parts of the country. This not only hampers the development projects but also shrink the space for people’s participation to achieve their goals through peaceful means.

The voluntary sector being present in such locations faces the challenge of delivering the services and even mobilizing people on the development agenda. The need of the hour is to work closely with each other for the benefit of the marginalized people, as even today the dream of Mahatma Gandhi has not been achieved.

WOMEN

Constitutional provisions for Women

Art. 15(3)	It permits the state to make special provisions for women and children. Several acts such as Dowry Prevention Act have been passed including the most recent one of Protection of women from domestic violence Act 2005.
Art. 23	Under the fundamental right against exploitation, flesh trade has been banned.
Art. 39	Guarantees equal pay to women for equal work. In the case of Randhir Singh vs Union of India, SC held that the concept of equal pay for equal work is indeed a constitutional goal and is capable of being enforced through constitutional remedies under Art. 32.
Art. 40	Provides 1/3 reservation in panchayat.
Art. 42	Offers free pregnancy care and delivery.
Art. 44	It compels the state to implement unchanging civil code, which will help progress the condition of women across all religions. It has, however, not been implemented due to politics. In the case of Sarla Mudgal vs Union of India, SC has held that in Indian Republic there is to be only one nation i.e. Indian nation and no community could claim to be a separate entity on the basis of religion. There is a plan to provide reservation to women in parliament as well.

 

Statutory Provisions for Women

Dowry Prevention Act

Protection of women from domestic violence Act 2005

National Commission for Women, New Delhi, India

 

Schemes for Women

UDAAN (Giving Wings to Girl Students)

Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA)

Family Planning

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao

The Mahila Police Volunteer initiative

Sukanya samriddhi yojana

Dhanalakshmi Scheme

One Stop centre scheme

Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana

Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development (TREAD)Scheme

Stanapan Suraksha Scheme

Sabla Saksham

Mahila E-Haat

Swadhar Greh

National Social Assistance Programme

New schemes under Nirbhaya Fund

 

CHILDREN

Constitutional Provisions for Children

Art. 19 A	Education up to 14 yrs has been made a fundamental right. Thus, the state is required to provide school education to children.
Art. 24	Children have a fundamental right against exploitation and it is prohibited to employ children below 14 years of age in factories and any hazardous processes. Recently the list of hazardous processes has been updated to include domestic, hotel, and restaurant work.
Art. 45	Urges the state to provide early childhood care and education for children up to 6 years of age.

 

Statutory Provisions for Children

National Commission for Protection of Child Rights

Shala Asmita Yojana (SAY)

SWAYAM – Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds

Swachh Swasth Sarvatra

National Deworming Day (NDD)

Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme

Pocso-e Box

ICDS

Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)

PradhanMantri Yuva Yojana

National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS)

Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY)

UDAAN

Hunar se rozgar tak

Pradhan Mantri Vidya Lakshmi Karyakram

National Academic Repository

SAMVAY: Skill Assessment Matrix for vocational Advancement of Youth

Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram

YUVA programme

Schemes for children

OLD AGE

Constitutional Provisions for Aged

Entry 24 in List III of Schedule IV	Welfare of Labour, including conditions of work, provident funds, liability for workmen’s compensations, invalidity and Old age pension and maternity benefits.
Item No. 9 of the State List and Item No. 20, 23 and 24 of the Concurrent List	Relates to old age pension, social security and social insurance, and economic and social planning.
Article 41 of the Directive Principle of the State Policy	The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of undeserved want.

 

Statutory Provisions for Old Age

Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007

 

Schemes for Aged

Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI)

Rashtriya Vayoshree Yojana

Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana

Mahatma Gandhi Pravasi Suraksha Yojana

Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana

PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED

Statutory Provisions for the physically handicapped

Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995

National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability Act, 1999

Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Institute of Physically Handicapped, New Delhi

National Institute for the Orthopedically Handicapped, Kolkata

National Institute of Visually Handicapped, Dehradun

National Institute of Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad

Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Mumbai

National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research, Cuttack

National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities, Chennai

Swami Vivekanand National Institute of Rehabilitation, Training & Research (SVNIRTAR), Orissa

The Indian Sign Language Research and Training Centre, New Delhi

The National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation

Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation, Kanpur

The Rehabilitation Council of India

The Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities

The National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities

Schemes for Disabled

Badhte Kadam

 

For detailed information on Welfare Schemes, follow the link- Govt. Schemes and Policies

Introduction

Vulnerable groups are those groups of society which would be susceptible under any unfavourable situations such as where the adults are not capable to provide a satisfactory living for the household due to health issues like disability, illness, age or some other characteristic, and groups whose resource endowment is poor to provide sufficient income from any available source. In India, there are numerous socio-economic difficulties that members of particular groups experience which limits their access to health and healthcare.

For government, it is not an easy task to identify the vulnerable groups. Besides there are multiple and complex factors of vulnerability with different layers and more often than once it cannot be analysed in isolation. There are several conspicuous factors on the basis of which individuals or members of groups are differentiated in India, i.e., structural factors, age, disability and discrimination that act as barriers to health and healthcare.

The vulnerable groups that face impartiality include, Women, Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Children, Aged, Disabled, Poor migrants, People living with HIV/AIDS and Sexual Minorities. Sometimes, each group faces many obstacles due to their multiple individualities. For example, in a patriarchal civilisation, disabled women have to face double discrimination of being a women and being disabled.

There is caste system in India since ancient times and therefore sudras have been browbeaten for the ages. In earlier period, they were deprived of the right to education and thus were left suffering behind, socially and economically. Such people have been categorized into Scheduled Castes. Tribal communities, who never mixed with the main society, are similarly challenged and are categorized into Scheduled Tribes.

Backward Classes

The constitution of India does not define the term backward classes. It is up to the centre and the states to postulate the classes that belong to this group. However, it is assumed that classes that are not signified passably in the services of the state can be termed backward classes.

Further, the President can, under Article 340, can establish a commission to scrutinise the condition of socially and educationally backward classes. Structural standards are attached to the different relationships between the subordinate and the prevailing group in every society. The norms act as structural obstacles giving rise to various forms of disparity.

There is some structural discrimination faced by these vulnerable groups. In India, members of gender, caste, class, and ethnic identity experience structural discrimination that has adversely impacted on their health and access to healthcare. Women also face dual discrimination being members of specific caste, class or cultural group apart from experiencing gendered susceptibilities. Women have less control on the resources and on important decisions related to their lives.

In India, early marriage and childbearing affects women’s health unfavourably. About 28% of girls in India get married below the legal age and experience pregnancy (Reproductive And Child Health – District level Household Survey 2002-04, August 2006). These have serious consequences on the health of women. Reports indicated that maternal mortality is at rising trend in India. The average maternal mortality ratio at the national level is 540 deaths per 100,000 live births (National Family Health Survey-2, 2000). It varies between states and regions, i.e., rural-urban. In most cases the deaths occur from avoidable causes. Huge percentages of women are reported to have received no antenatal care.

In India, institutional delivery is lowest among women from the lower economic class as against those from the higher class. It has been documented in reports that major proportion of the lower castes and Dalits are still dependent on business and upper class for their living. Dalits does not refer to a caste but suggests a group who are in a state of subjugation, social disability and who are helpless and poor. Earlier, they were called as ‘untouchables’ mainly due to their low jobs i.e., cobbler, scavenger, sweeper.

In a caste-dominated country such as India, Dalits who comprises more than one-sixth of the Indian population, stand as a community whose human rights have been sternly dishonoured. Literacy rates among Dalits are very low, about 24 per cent. Their living conditions are very poor or have low access to resources and entitlements. In rural India, they are landless poor agricultural labourers attached to rich landowners from generations or poor casual labourers doing all kinds of available work.

In the metropolitan, they get low level job as wage labourers at several work sites, beggars, vendors, small service providers, domestic help, etc. They live in slums and other temporary shelters without any kind of social security.

The members of these groups face systemic violence in the form of disavowal of access to land, good housing, education and employment. Structural discrimination against these groups occurs in the form of physical, psychological, emotional and cultural abuse which receives legitimacy from the social structure and the social system. Physical separation of their settlements is common in the villages forcing them to live in the most unhygienic and inhabitable conditions.

All these factors affect their health status, access to healthcare, and quality of health service received. There are high rates of undernourishment reported among the downgraded groups resulting in mortality, morbidity and anaemia. Access to and utilization of healthcare among the marginalized groups is influenced by their socio-economic status within the society.

It is observed that structural discrimination unswervingly obstructs equal access to health services by way of prohibiting. The undesirable attitude of the experts towards these groups also acts as an obstacle to receiving quality services from government. A large proportion of Dalit girls drop out of primary school in spite of reservations and academic aptitude, because of poverty, humiliation, isolation or bullying by teachers and classmates and punishment for scoring good grades (National Commission Report for SC/ST, 2000).

The scavenger community among the Dalits is susceptible to stress and diseases with reduced access to healthcare. The Scheduled Tribes like the Scheduled Castes face structural discrimination within the Indian society. Likewise the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes also face marginalization based on ethnicity.

There is a desperate need for development of the weaker sections such as the SCs, STs, and OBCs. The SCs, STs and OBCs have been forced to remain as the Weaker Sections of India, and the women confined or oppressed to be the most and multiply exploited sections of the country, for many decades. This worst situation cannot and should not continue anymore. There is a need for the Government to act to free and unshackle the weaker Sections, from the lethargies of oppression, marginalisation and backwardness. They have to be elevated to the levels of normal human beings of the world.

Laws for the development and betterment of vulnerable sections

Laws about vulnerable sections can be seen in two dimensions:

1. Constitutional
2. Statutory

 

SCHEDULED CASTES

Constitutional Provisions for Scheduled Castes

Art. 15(4)	Clause 4 of article 15 is the fountain head of all provisions regarding compensatory discrimination for SCs. This clause was added in the first amendment to the constitution in 1951 after the SC judgement in the case of Champakam Dorairajan vs State of Madras. It states thus, “Nothing in this article or in article 29(2) shall prevent the state from making any provisions for the advancement of any socially and economically backward classes of citizens or for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.” This clause started the era of reservations in India.
Art. 15 (5)	This clause was added in 93rd amendment in 2005 and allows the state to make special provisions for SCs for admissions in private educational institutions, aided or unaided.
Art. 16 (4A)	This allows the state to implement reservation in the matter of promotion for SCs.
Art. 40	Provides reservation in 1/3 seats in Panchayats to SC
Art. 46	Enjoins the states to promote with care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections, especially SC and STs.
Art. 330	Allows reservation of seats for SC in the parliament as well as in state legislatures.
Art. 335	Allows relaxation in qualifying marks for admission in educational institutes or promotions for SCs.
Art. 338/338A	Establishes a National Commission of SCs and STs.

 

Statutory Provisions Scheduled Castes

Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955	The constitution struggles to remove this abhorring practice by not only making the provision a fundamental right but also allows punishment to whoever practices or abets it in any form. Towards this end, Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 was enacted. It has implemented several measures to eradicate this evil from the society. It stipulates up to 6 months imprisonment or Rs.500 fine or both. It impresses upon the public servant to investigate fully any complaint in this matter and failing to do so will amount to abetting this crime.
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
The National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation.
The National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation.
National Commission for Scheduled Castes

 

Schemes for Scheduled Castes

Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana

Scheme for upgradation of merit of SC students

National Overseas Scholarship Scheme

Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS)

Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY)

Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana(PMRPY)

Stand up India scheme

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDUGKY)

Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana

Vanjeevan

 

SCHEDULED TRIBES

Constitutional Provisions for Scheduled Tribes

Art. 15(4)	Clause 4 of article 15 is the fountain head of all provisions regarding compensatory discrimination for STs. This clause was added in the first amendment to the constitution in 1951 after the SC judgement in the case of Champakam Dorairajan vs State of Madras. It states thus, “Nothing in this article or in article 29(2) shall prevent the state from making any provisions for the advancement of any socially and economically backward classes of citizens or for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.” This clause started the era of reservations in India.
Art. 15 (5)	This clause was added in 93rd amendment in 2005 and allows the state to make special provisions for STs for admissions in private educational institutions, aided or unaided.
Art. 16 (4A)	This allows the state to implement reservation in the matter of promotion for STs.
Art. 19(5)	It allows the state to impose restriction on freedom of movement or of residence in the benefit of Scheduled Tribes.
Art. 40	Provides reservation in 1/3 seats in Panchayats to ST
Art. 46	Enjoins the states to promote with care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections, especially SC and STs.
Art. 164	Appoint special minister for tribal welfare in the states of MP, Bihar, and Orrisa.
Art. 275	Allows special grant in aids to states for tribal welfare.
Art. 332	Allows reservation of seats for ST in the parliament as well as in state legislatures.
Art. 335	Allows relaxation in qualifying marks for admission in educational institutes or promotions for STs.
Art. 338/338A	Establishes a National Commission of SCs and STs.
Art. 339	Allows the central govt. to direct states to implement and execute plans for the betterment of STs.

 

Statutory Provisions for Scheduled Tribes

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes – NCST

 

Schemes for Scheduled Tribes

Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana

Scheme for upgradation of merit of SC students

National Overseas Scholarship Scheme

Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS)

Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY)

Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana(PMRPY)

Stand up India scheme

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDUGKY)

Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana

Vanjeevan

 

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

Constitutional Provisions for Other Backward classes

Art. 15 (5)	This clause was added in 93rd amendment in 2005 and allows the state to make special provisions for backward classes for admissions in private educational institutions, aided or unaided.
Art. 16(4)	This clause allows the state to reserve vacancies in public service for any backward classes of the state that are not adequately represented in the public services.
Art. 16(4B)	This allows the state to consider unfilled vacancies reserved for backward classes as a separate class of vacancies not subject to a limit of 50% reservation.
Art. 17	This eradicates untouchability and its practice in any form.
Art. 340	Permits the president to appoint a commission to investigate the condition of socially and economically backward classes and table the report in the parliament.

 

Statutory Provisions for Other Backward Classes

The National Commission for Backward Classes Act, 1993

The National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation

 

For detailed information on Welfare Schemes, follow the link- Govt. Schemes and Policies

International NGOs

Global Footprint Network

Established When: In 2003, Mathis Wackernagel, PhD, and Susan Burns founded Global Footprint Network.

Headquarter: California, USA

Objective of the body: Global Footprint Network’s goal is to create a future where all humans can live well, within the means of one planet Earth.

Key Functions:  

• It develops and promotes tools for advancing sustainability, including the ecological footprint and biocapacity, which measure the amount of resources we use and how much we have.
• These tools aim at bringing ecological limits to the center of decision-making.

India specific trivia: India ranks 164, acording to Ecological Footprint data by Global Footprint Network.

 

Green Cross International

Established When and by Whom: It was founded by former Soviet Union President and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Mikhail Gorbachev in 1993.

Headquarter: GCI is headquartered in Geneva.

Objective of the body:  It is working to address the inter-connected global challenges of security, poverty eradication and environmental degradation through a combination of advocacy and local projects.

Key Functions:

To achieve its objective GCI:

• Promote legal, ethical and behavioural norms that ensure basic changes in the values, actions and attitudes of government, the private sector and civil society, necessary to develop a sustainable global community
• Contribute to the prevention and resolution of conflicts arising from environmental degradation.
• Provide assistance to people affected by the environmental consequences of wars, conflicts and man made calamities.

 

Greenpeace

Established When and by Whom: Greenpeace was founded by Irving Stowe and Dorothy Stowe, Canadian and US ex-pat environmental activists in 1971.

Headquarter: Amsterdam, Netherlands

Objective of the body: Greenpeace states its goal is to “ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity”.

Key Functions:

• Greenpeace focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues.
• It uses , lobbying, research, and ecotage to achieve its goals
• Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world.

India specific trivia: Greenpeace India was founded in 2001, and is a legally registered society with offices in Chennai, Delhi,  Bengaluru and Patna.

 

International Network for Sustainable Energy(INFORSE)

Established When and by Whom: INFORSE was established in 1992 at the Global Forum, which was a parallel forum to the UNCED Conference so called Earth Summit.

Headquarter: Denmark

Objective: It is a  network of environmental organizations promoting sustainable energy to protect the environment and to decrease poverty.

Key Functions:

Develops scenarios for a transition to a 100% renewables energy supply with factor four energy efficiency by 2050. A global, EU-27 and European national scenarios are developed. The name of the sustainable energy model is INFORSE Vision 2050.

Participation on UN Conferences as NGO observer as INFORSE has Consultative Status at UN ECOSOC and UNFCCC.

 

Project GreenWorld International

Established When and by Whom: It is founded by a student at Indian School, Salalah, Hridith Sudev (then aged 12), and his younger brother Samved Shaji (then aged 7), in 2012.

Headquarter: Salalah, Dhofar, Oman

Objective: Turn degraded lands green again. Raise the living standards of the rural poor. Combat climate change. Create holistic ways to work for the health of our shared biosphere and the harmony of our global village.

Key Functions:

• The GWC connects those who want to help create a more sustainable world with on-the-ground projects that benefit people and planet.
• It focusses on providing ecological and social benefits where they’re most needed.
• It seek out effective grassroots partners, then finding the simplest, most direct ways we can all contribute to their success.
• Its work centers around tree-planting.
• It allies with local experts who best know the problems and opportunities in their country. Their trusted, ground-level partners work with villagers who are motivated to work for the benefits our programs bring.
• Contributions from the GWC get planted right in the ground. We always learn from our partners, and collaborate with them on creative solutions.

India specific trivia: PGWI’s Indian wing, the Project GreenIndia was founded On 17 July 2016 in Vatakara Municipality of Kerala, India. Various tree plantation drives, summer camps and cleanup campaigns mark their activity.

 

Rainforest Alliance

Established When and by Whom: It was founded in 1987 by Daniel Katz.

Headquarter: USA

Objective: It is working to conserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable livelihoods by transforming land-use practices, business practices and consumer behavior.

Key Functions:

• The Rainforest Alliance launched the world’s first sustainable forestry certification program in 1989 to encourage market-driven and environmentally and socially responsible management of forests, tree farms, and forest resources.
• The organization verifies carbon offset projects to standards that address greenhouse gas sequestration, biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods.
• The Rainforest Alliance’s sustainable agriculture program includes training programs for farmers and the certification of small, medium and large farms that produce more than 100 different crops, including avocado, cattle, cinnamon, coffee, palm oil, and potatoes, as well as tea, cocoa, and bananas.
• The organization launched a sustainable tourism program in 2000 and provides small- and medium-sized tourism businesses in Latin America with training and tools to minimize their impacts on the environment and local communities.

 

Society for the Environment (SocEnv)

Established When and by Whom:  SocEnv attained Royal Chartered status on 6 May 2004 and issued the first licenses to enable the award of Chartered Environmentalist in September 2004.

Headquarter: England

Objective: The Society aspires to be the leading and coordinating body for professionals working in sustainability and environmental matters and a pre-eminent champion of a sustainable environment.

Key Functions:  It is an umbrella body that can license its member institutions to confer chartered status on sustainability and environmental professionals worldwide.

 

The Climate Reality Project

Established When and by Whom: The Alliance for Climate Protection was founded in 2006 by Al Gore to encourage civic action against climate change.

Headquarter: Washington, D.C., U.S.

Objective: The Climate Reality Project is a non-profit organization focused on climate change education and countering climate change denial campaigns worldwide.

Key Functions:

• In 2013, The Climate Reality Project released the Reality Drop tool, a news aggregator that collects online news stories about climate change.
• The Climate Reality Project also addresses climate change through a network of approximately 10,000 grassroots Climate Reality Leaders, which the organization calls the Climate Reality Leadership Corps.

India specific trivia: Approximately 50 principals from government schools falling under the Department of Education, Government of Uttarakhand participated in the conclave. The event was organized in partnership with The Climate Reality Project India, UNESCO, New Delhi and HaritaDhara Research Development and Education Foundation (HRDEF).

 

Traffic (conservation programme)

Established When and by Whom: It was founded in 1976 as a strategic alliance of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Headquarter: Cambridge, UK

Objective: The organization’s aim is to ‘ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature’.

Key Functions:

• It is the leading non-governmental organization working globally on the trade of wild animals and plants in the context of both biodiversity and sustainable development.
• It promotes sustainable wildlife trade (the green stream work) and combats wildlife crime and trafficking (the red stream work).
• TRAFFIC’s work involves research, publication of influential reports, projects, education, outreach and advocacy on the issue of wildlife trade.

 

Wetlands International

Established When and by Whom: Founded in 1937 as the International Wildfowl Inquiry the organisation was focused on the protection of waterbirds as part of the British section.

Later, the name became International Waterfowl & Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB).

Headquarter: Netherlands

Objective: Its mission is to sustain and restore wetlands, their resources, and biodiversity.

Key Functions:

• Wetlands International’s work ranges from research and community-based field projects to advocacy and engagement with governments, corporate and international policy fora and conventions.
• Wetlands International works through partnerships and is supported by contributions from an extensive specialist expert network and tens of thousands of volunteers.

India specific trivia: In the Himalaya Mountains the organization works to restore wetlands to reduce the impacts of glacier melt and precipitation extremes on densely populated regions downstream India, China and Bangladesh.

 

Wildlife Conservation Society

Established When and by Whom: WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society) was founded in 1895 as the New York Zoological Society (NYZS).

Headquarter: USA

Objective: To save wildlife and wild places worldwide through science, conservation action, education, and inspiring people to value nature.

Key Functions:

• Currently works to conserve more than two million square miles of wild places around the world.
• Today WCS is at work on some 500 projects in more than 60 nations around the world that are intended to help protect both wildlife and the wild places in which they live.
• The organization endeavors to protect 25 percent of the world’s biodiversity—from the gorillas of Africa and the tigers of Asia to macaws in South America and the sharks, whales and turtles traveling through the planet’s seas.

India specific trivia: Wildlife Conservation Society – India Program describes the work of several partner institutions engaged in saving wildlife and wild lands in full compliance with all Indian laws.

WCS – India Program mission has combined cutting-edge research on tigers and other wildlife, with national capacity building and effective site-based conservation through constructive collaborations with governmental and non-governmental partners.

Uncompromisingly committed to wildlife conservation, WCS – India Program inspires and nurtures positive attitude towards nature in people through its scientific and conservation endeavors.

 

World Resources Institute

Established When and by Whom:  It was established in 1982 with funding from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation under the leadership of James Gustave Speth

Headquarter: USA

Objective: To move human society to live in ways that protect earth’s environment and its capacity to provide for the needs and aspirations of current and future generations.

Key Functions: WRI’s activities are focused on six areas: climate; energy; food; forests; water; and sustainable cities.

India specific trivia: WRI established its India office in 2011. It  works with leaders in business, government, and civil society to expand clean energy development, combat climate change, and develop sustainable transport solutions.

 

World Wide Fund for Nature

Established When: It was founded in 1969.

Headquarter: Switzerland

Objective: Its mission is to conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats to the diversity of life on Earth.

Key Functions:

• It is the world’s largest conservation organization with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300.
• The living planet report is published every two years by WWF since 1998, it is based on living planet index and ecological footprint calculation.
• Currently, much of its work concentrates on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world’s biodiversity: oceans and coasts, forests, and freshwater ecosystems.
• Among other issues, it is also concerned with endangered species, sustainable production of commodities and climate change.

Funding:  WWF is a foundation, with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the World Bank, DFID, USAID) and 8% from corporations in 2014.

India specific trivia: Established as a Charitable Trust on 27 November, 1969, WWF-India set out with the aim of reducing the degradation of Earth’s natural environment and building a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.

In 1987, the organization changed it’s name from the World Wildlife Fund to World Wide Fund for Nature-India. With close to five decades of extensive work in the sector, WWF-India today is one of the leading conservation organizations in the country.

 

Bioversity International

Established When and by Whom: Bioversity International was originally established by the CGIAR( Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) as the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974.

Headquarter: Maccarese, Rome

Objective of the body: Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization with a vision – that agricultural biodiversity nourishes people and sustains the planet.

Key Functions:

• It delivers scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security.
• It works with partners in low-income countries in different regions where agricultural and tree biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation.

India specific trivia: The international status of Bioversity International is conferred under an Establishment Agreement and it is also signed by India.

 

BirdLife International

Established When and by Whom:  BirdLife International was founded as in 1922 the International Council for Bird Preservation by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and Jean Theodore Delacour under the name International Committee for Bird Protection.

The group was renamed International Committee for Bird Preservation in 1928, International Council for Bird Preservation in 1960, and BirdLife International in 1994.

Headquarter: Cambridge, United Kingdom

Objective of the body: It promotes the conservation of birds and their habitats.

Key Functions:

• It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources
• BirdLife International’s priorities include preventing extinction of bird species, identifying and safeguarding important sites for birds, maintaining and restoring key bird habitats, and empowering conservationists worldwide

India specific trivia: Last year, the BirdLife International has recorded that 11 water bird species of Kerala come under the IUCN Red list threatened categories with the black bellied tern being one of the ‘Endangered’ waterbird species in Kerala.

 

Citizens Climate Lobby (CCL)

Established When and by Whom: It is operating since 2007. And founded by Marshall Saunders.

Headquarter: USA

Objective of the body: The goal of CCL is to build political support across party lines to put a price on carbon, specifically a revenue neutral carbon fee and dividend (CF&D) at the national level.

Key Functions: It trains and supports volunteers to build relationships with their elected representatives in order to influence climate policy. 

India specific trivia: CCL also have an active group in India.

 

Climate Action Network

Headquarter: Beirut, Lebanon

Objective:  Working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels.

Key Functions:

• CAN members work to achieve their objective through information exchange and the coordinated development of NGO strategy on international, regional, and national climate issues.
• CAN has regional network hubs that coordinate these efforts around the world.
• It is most active at meetings of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where it publishes a daily newsletter “ECO”, (presenting the views of the Environmental NGO community)

India specific trivia:

Under the CAN

• The Indian Youth Climate Network (IYCN) is a network of young people in 18 states who are concerned about climate change & environment issues.
• Started in 2008, IYCN was registered as a society in 2009 with representation from 8 states of India and today IYCN has 19 chapters in different states and offices in 7 locations with outreach to thousands of youth in colleges, schools, corporations and institutions in India.
• The purpose of IYCN is to bring the voice of Indian youth on the global platform as South Asia is one of the most vulnerable regions affected by potentially catastrophic climate change & environment issues.
• IYCN provides technical, financial and administrative support to increase youth participation in protection of the environment of India as well as establish consensus on what role India should play in the global debate of climate change.

 

Conservation International

Established When and by Whom: Founded by Spencer Beebe and Peter Seligmann in 1987

Headquarter: USA

Objective of the body: Its goal is to protect nature as a source of food, fresh water, livelihoods and a stable climate.

Key Functions:

• CI’s work focuses on science, policy, and partnership with businesses and communities
• The foundation of CI’s work is “science, partnership and field demonstration.”
• The organization has scientists, policy workers and other conservationists on the ground in more than 30 countries. It also relies heavily on thousands of local partners.
• CI aims to make the protection of nature a key consideration in economic development decisions around the world
• The organization has been active in United Nations discussions on issues such as climate change and biodiversity, and its scientists present at international conferences and workshops.

 

Earth Charter Initiative

Established When: In 2000

Headquarter: USA

Objective of the body: The stated mission of the Earth Charter Initiative is to promote the transition to sustainable ways of living and a global society founded on a shared ethical framework that includes respect and care for the community of life, ecological integrity, universal human rights, respect for diversity, economic justice, democracy, and a culture of peace.

Key Functions:

• To promote development of a global network of Earth Charter supporters and activists with the collaboration of advisors, affiliates, partner organizations, and task forces.
• To create and disseminate high quality communications and educational materials to different target groups that will reach millions of people.
• To translate key Earth Charter materials in all major languages of the world.
• To set up Earth Charter websites in all countries in partnership with key individuals and organizations.
• To promote the Earth Charter vision in key local, national and international events and engage individuals and organizations in applying it in their areas of activity.
• To position the Earth Charter in relation to important international initiatives and processes so that its ethical framework can be used as a guide in efforts to address urgent challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, the Millennium Development Goals, food security, and conflict resolution.
• To undertake training programmes to facilitate the uptake and application of the Earth Charter in different sectors.
• To develop the guidance and instruments to help organizations, businesses, and local communities use the Earth Charter to assess progress toward sustainable development.

 

Earth Day Network  

Headquarter: USA

Objective of the body: Earth Day Network’s mission is to diversify, educate and activate the environmental movement worldwide.

Key Functions:

• Earth Day events in more than 193 countries are now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network
• EDN works to broaden the definition of “environment” to include issues that affect our health and our communities, such as greening deteriorated schools, creating green jobs and investment, and promoting activism to stop air and water pollution.

India specific trivia: Earth Day Network has made significant inroads across India and now has a permanent Indian Program – EDN India – located in Kolkata.

 

Environmental Defense Fund

Established When and by Whom:  The organization’s founders, includes Art Cooley, George Woodwell, Charles Wurster, Dennis Puleston, Victor Yannacone and Robert Smolker. It was founded in 1967.

Headquarter: USA

Objective:  EDF aims to reduce the pollution and slow global warming, with strategies including overhauling U.S. energy systems, protecting the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s limits on pollution, training new climate/energy leaders, and slowing deforestation in Brazil and the Amazon rainforest.

Key Functions:

• It is basically nonprofit environmental advocacy group.
• The group is known for its work on issues including global warming, ecosystem restoration, oceans, and human health, and advocates using sound science, economics and law to find environmental solutions that work.
• It is nonpartisan, and its work often advocates market-based solutions to environmental problems.

 

Fauna and Flora International

Established When and by Whom: FFI was founded in 1903 as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire by a group of British naturalists and American statesmen in Africa.

It later became the Fauna Preservation Society, before being renamed Fauna and Flora Preservation Society in 1981.

Headquarter: Cambridge, UK

Objective of the body: Conservation charity

Key Functions:

FFI has a seven-step approach to conserving biodiversity:

• Building local capacity for conservation
• Integrating biodiversity and human needs
• Direct protection of species and habitats
• Securing land for conservation
• Emergency response to conservation needs
• Influencing policy and the practice of conservation
• Bridging the gap between business and biodiversity

In line with its seven-step approach to conservation, Fauna & Flora International has endorsed the Forests Now Declaration, which calls for new market based mechanisms to protect tropical forests.

India specific trivia: Last year, Fauna & Flora International (FFI), has contributed to the discovery of a previously undescribed species of evergreen tree in one of India’s most iconic natural landscapes.

 

Regional Organizations

European Environment Agency (EEA)

Established When and by Whom:  The EEA was established by the European Economic Community (EEC) became operational in 1994

Headquarter: It is headquartered in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Objective of the body: The EEA’s mandate is:

• To help the Community and member and cooperating countries make informed decisions about improving the environment, integrating environmental considerations into economic policies and moving towards sustainability
• To coordinate the European environment information and observation network

Key Functions:

• The European environment information and observation network (Eionet) is a partnership network of the EEA and the countries.
• The EEA is responsible for developing the network and coordinating its activities.
• To do so, the EEA works closely together with national focal points, typically national environment agencies or environment ministries.
• They are responsible for coordinating national networks involving many institutions (about 350 in all).

India specific trivia: No official relationship

Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)

Established When and by Whom:  It is a regional partnership programme implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS).

The project, started in 1994, was originally known as Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas (SDS-SEA).

Headquarter: Quezon City, Philippines

Objective of the body: Marine and Coastal Areas Environmental Management

Key Functions:

• It aims to proactively build effective intergovernmental and intersectoral partnerships and expand the capacities of countries and other stakeholders with innovative, cross-cutting policies, tools and services for integrated coastal and ocean management.
• PEMSEA applies integrated coastal management (ICM) as our primary approach for generating and sustaining healthy oceans, people and economies.  

Funding:  UN

 

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Adopted When and by Whom: It was adopted by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. The Convention entered into force on 17 May 2004.

Objective: The objective of the Stockholm Convention is to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants.

Key Provisions:  The provisions of the Convention require each party to:

• Prohibit and/or eliminate the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex A to the Convention
• Restrict the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex B to the Convention
• Reduce or eliminate releases from unintentionally produced POPs that are listed in Annex C to the Convention
• Ensure that stockpiles and wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs are managed safely and in an environmentally sound manner

India specific trivia: India’s Union Cabinet gave its approval to ratify and accede to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on 20 October 2005. The Convention will enable India to avail technical and financial assistance for implementing measures to meet the obligations of the Convention.

 

Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage

Adopted When and by Whom:  It was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972.

Objective: It is based on the premise that certain places on Earth are of outstanding universal value and should therefore form part of the common heritage of mankind, and therefore should be conserved.

Key Provisions:

The countries that ratify the Convention (States Parties) have become part of an international community, united in a common mission to identify and safeguard our world’s most outstanding natural and cultural heritage.

While fully respecting the national sovereignty, and without prejudice to property rights provided by national legislation, the States Parties recognize that the protection of the World Heritage is the duty of the international community as a whole.

India specific trivia: According to the sites ranked by country, Italy is home to the greatest number of World Heritage Sites with 51 sites, followed by China (48), Spain (44), France (41), Germany (40), Mexico (33), and India (32).

 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild flora and fauna(CITES) 1973

Adopted When and by Whom: It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Objective: The Conference aims to control or prevent international commercial trade inendangered species or products derived from them.

Key Function: The Convention does not seek to directly protect endangered species, rather it seeks to reduce the economic incentive to poach endangered species and destroy their habitat by closing off the international market.

India specific trivia: India became a party to the convention in 1976. International trade in all wild flora and fauna in general and species covered under convention is regulated through the provisions of the Wildlife (protection) Act 1972

Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Adopted When and by Whom: It is an international treaty, concluded under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme. It came into force in 1983.

Objective:

To avoid any migratory species becoming endangered

To protect endangered migratory species

Key Provisions:

Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them.

Besides establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States of many of these species.

Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional Agreements.

India specific trivia: India had signed(in 2016) the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU). It raised the number of signatories to 56.

 

World Conservation Strategy

Adopted When and by Whom:  Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development is contained in a report published in 1980 and prepared by the IUCN—The World Conservation Union .

Assistance and collaboration was received from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ).

Objectives and Functions: The three main objectives of the WCS are

(1) to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems on which human survival and development depend. Items of concern include soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of nutrients, and protection of water quality

(2) to preserve genetic diversity on which depend the functioning of many of the above processes and life-support systems, the breeding programs necessary for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants, domesticated animals, and microorganisms ,as well as much scientific and medical advance, technical innovation, and the security of the many industries that use living resources

(3) to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries.

 

Nairobi Declaration

Adopted When and by Whom: It was first signed in 1985 and entered into force in 1996, is part of UN Environment’s Regional Seas Programme.

Objective:  

It is a partnership between governments, civil society and the private sector, working towards a prosperous Western Indian Ocean Region with healthy rivers, coasts and oceans.  

The programme aims to address the accelerating degradation of the world’s oceans and coastal areas through the sustainable management and use of the marine and coastal environment.

Key Provisions: It pursues its vision by providing a mechanism for regional cooperation, coordination and collaborative actions; it enables the Contracting Parties to harness resources and expertise from a wide range of stakeholders and interest groups; and in this way it helps solve inter-linked problems of the region’s coastal and marine environment.

 

World Charter of Nature

Adopted When and by Whom:  It was adopted by United Nations member nation-states on October 28, 1982.

Objective: This annex to a United Nations General Assembly resolution sets forth “principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.” The Charter recognizes the interaction between mankind and nature. It calls for member states to reflect the stated principles in their national legislation

The Charter recognizes the interaction between mankind and nature. It calls for member states to reflect the stated principles in their national legislation

Key Function:

It proclaims five principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.

1. Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
2. The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
3. All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
4. Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist.
5. Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.[1]

 

Vienna Convention

Adopted When and by Whom: It was adopted in the year 1985 and entered into force in 1988.

Objective: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer are dedicated to the protection of the earth’s ozone layer.

With 197 parties, it is one of the most widely ratified treaties in United Nations history.

Key Provisions: It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer however it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs.

India specific trivia: India became a Party to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer on 19 June 1991 and the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer on 17 September 1992.

 

Montreal Protocol

Signed When and by Whom: It was signed in 1987 by 46 signatories. And it was ratified by all the UN members.

Objective: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the production and consumption o( ozone depleting substances in order to reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer.

Key Provisions: It seeks to cut the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in order to protect the earth’s fragile ozone layer. It also aims at phase out HCFCs by 2030.

It is also highly successful international arrangement, as it has phased-out more than 95% of the ODS so far as per its main mandate in less than 30 years of its existence.

India specific trivia: India became a Party to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer on 17 September 1992. Consequently, it ratified the Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing Amendments in 2003.

 

Basel Convention

Adopted When and by Whom: The Convention came into force in 1992. As of November 2016, 184 states and the European Union are parties to the Convention. Haiti and the United States have signed the Convention but not ratified it.

Objective: The objectives of the convention are toreduce trans-boundary movements of hazardous wastes, to minimize the creation of suchwastes and to prohibit their shipment from Developed countries to the LDCs

Key Features:  The Convention is intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.

India specific trivia: India ratified the convention andenacted Hazardous Wastes Management Rules Act 1989, encompasses some of theBasal provisions related to the notification of import and export of hazardous wastes,illegal traffic and liability.

 

Earth Summit(United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992)

Adopted When and by Whom: In continuation of Stockholm Declaration, 1972 and the Nairobi Declaration,1982 the third major Declaration was held in Rio-de-Janeiro in Brazil in the year 1992. Hence it is termed as Rio-Declaration and attended by over 150 countries.

Objective: The Rio Declaration was adopted in the conference recognizing the universal and integral nature of Earth and by establishing a global partnership among states and enlisting general rights and obligations on environmental protection.

Key Provisions:

• The Rio declaration is a statement of 27 principles for the guidance of national environmentalbehaviour and enlisting general rights and obligations on environmental protection.
• Rio principles placed human beings at the centre of sustainable development concerns by stating that humans are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature
• The gist of those principles are happy and healthy life to all people in the world in order to achieve this goal, concept of sustainable development has been established.
• To achieve sustainable development, states shall reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, exchange of scientific and technological knowledge, compensation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities with in their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction, precautionary approach shall be widely applied by states polluter should bear the cost of pollution, Environmental impact assessment as an instrument to monitor the likely environmental effects.

India specific trivia: India has provided a well-argued framework for implementing the themes of the conference.

 

UNFCCC

Adopted When and by Whom: In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, as a framework for international cooperation to combat climate change by limiting average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and coping with impacts that were, by then, inevitable.

Objective: The primary goals of the UNFCCC were to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions atlevels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate.

Key Provisions: The convention embraced the principle of common but differentiated responsibilitieswhich has guided the adoption of a regulatory structure.

India specific trivia: India signed the agreement inJune 1992 which was ratified in November 1993. As per the convention the reduction/limitation requirements apply only to developed countries. The only reporting obligationfor developing countries relates to the construction of a GHG inventory.

 

CBD

Adopted When and by Whom: The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio “Earth Summit”). The convention came into force in 1993. Many biodiversity issuesare addressed including habitat preservation, intellectual property rights, biosafety andindigenous people‘s rights.

Objective: It has 3 main objectives:

1. The conservation of biological diversity
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources

Key Provisions:  This convention is a legally binding framework treaty that has been ratified by180 countries. The areas that are dealt by convention are conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising fromtheir sustainable use.

India specific trivia: India is a Party to the CBD. India has made significant positive contributions in these negotiations.ndia signed the Protocol on 11th May 2011, and ratified it on 9th October, 2012.

 

UN Convention on Desertification

Adopted When and by Whom: The U.N. General Assembly established a committee in1992 which helped the formulation of the convention on desertification.

Objective: The convention aims at tackling desertification through national, regional and sub-regional action programmes. India hosts the network on agroforestry and soil conservation.

Key Provisions:  The convention endorses and employs a bottom-up approach to international environmental cooperation.

India specific trivia: India became a signatory to UNCCD on 14th October 1994 and ratified it on 17th December 1996.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change is the nodal Ministry in the Government of India for the UNCCD, and Desertification Cell is the nodal point within the Ministry to coordinate all issues pertaining to the Convention.

 

Kyoto Protocol

Adopted When and by Whom: The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol.

Objective: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it.

Key Provisions:  

• The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for parties that ratified the Protocol. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
• Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as

1. joint implementation
2. Clean development mechanism and
3. Emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.

• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.

India specific trivia: India has ratified the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol that commits countries to contain the emission of greenhouse gases, reaffirming its stand on climate action. In a brief statement, India’s Permanent Mission to the UN said that India deposited its Instrument of Acceptance of the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol under the UN Convention on Climate Change here yesterday.

In a brief statement, India’s Permanent Mission to the UN said that India deposited its Instrument of Acceptance of the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol under the UN Convention on Climate Change here yesterday.

 

Stockholm Convention on POPs

Adopted When and by Whom: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004. The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories.

The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories.

Objective: It aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

Key Provisions:

Key elements of the Convention include

• the requirement that developed countries provide new and additional financial resources and measures to eliminate production and use of intentionally produced POPs,
• eliminate unintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and
• manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally sound manner.

Precaution is exercised throughout the Stockholm Convention, with specific references in the preamble, the objective, and the provision on identifying new POPs.

India specific trivia: India’s Union Cabinet gave its approval to ratify and accede to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on 20 October 2005. The Convention will enable India to avail technical and financial assistance for implementing measures to meet the obligations of the Convention.

 

Johannesburg Declaration

Adopted When and by Whom: It is also known as Rio +10, held at Johannesburg in 2002.

Objective: Reviewed progress in the implementation of Agenda 21 since its adoption in 1992

Bali Summit on Climate Change

Adopted When and by Whom: Bali Action Plan or Bali Roadmap was adopted after the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP-13/ MOP-3) on the island Bali in Indonesia in December, 2007. This was a two-year process to finalizing a binding agreement in 2009 in Copenhagen.

Objective:

Launch of the Climate Adaptation Fund.

Review of the scope and content of the Article 9 of Kyoto Protocol to make decisions on technology transfer and on reducing emissions from deforestation.

Key Provisions: Negotiations are currently underway to determine the quantified emission reduction targets of the Parties to Kyoto protocol for the second commitment period beginning from 2013 and also define the targets of emission reduction for US, comparable with other Kyoto Parties, in pursuance of Bali Action Plan. 

According to the Bali Road Map, a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there in the COP 15 at Copenhagen Summit, in 2009. However, an agreement was not reached in the same conference nor in the COP 16 at Mexico.

 

Earth System Governance Project (ESGP)

Established When and by Whom:  Developed under the auspices of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change. It started in January 2009.

Headquarter: The Earth System Governance Project Office is hosted at Lund University, Sweden.

Key Functions:

The Earth System Governance Project aims to contribute to science on the large, complex challenges of governance in an era of rapid and large-scale environmental change. 

The project seeks to create a better understanding of the role of institutions, organizations and governance mechanisms by which humans regulate their relationship with the natural environment

The Earth System Governance Project aims to integrate governance research at all levels. The project aims to examine problems of the ‘global commons’, but also local problems from air pollution to the preservation of waters, waste treatment or desertification and soil degradation

However, due to natural interdependencies local environmental pollution can be transformed into changes of the global system that affect other localities. Therefore, the Earth System Governance Project looks at institutions and governance processes both local and globally

The Earth System Governance Project is a scientific effort, but also aims to assist policy responses to the pressing problems of earth system transformation

 

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Established When and by Whom: The Global Environment Facility was established in October 1991 as a $1 billion pilot program in the World Bank to assist in the protection of the global environment and to promote environmental sustainable development.

Headquarter: Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America

Key Functions:

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.

Today the GEF is the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment.

An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants.

Funding: The GEF also serves as the financial mechanism for the following conventions:

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Minamata Convention on Mercury

India specific trivia:

*India has formed a permanent Constituency in the Executive Council of the GEF together with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal and Maldives. 

The Council Meetings are held semi-annually or as frequently necessary. At each meeting, the Council elects a Chairperson from among its members for the duration of that meeting. India’s Executive Director in the World Bank represents the GEF Council from our Constituency.

India is both a donor and a recipient of GEF. It has been a leading developing country participant in the GEF since its inception in 1991 and has played a major role in shaping the restructuring of the GEF. It had contributed US $ 6.0 million to the core fund in the GEF Pilot Phase.

India has pledged an amount of US $ 9.0 million towards the resources of each of the Five GEF replenishments. The total funds pledged so far amounts to US$ 51 million and an amount of US$ 48.75 million has been paid by December 2012 towards GEF replenishments.

Ministry of Finance is the political focal point while Ministry of Environment & Forests is the Operational Focal Point for the GEF Projects.

 

Global Green Growth Institute

Established When and by Whom: GGGI was first launched as a think tank in 2010 by Korean President Lee Myung-bak, and was later converted into an international treaty-based organization in 2012 at the Rio+20 Summit in Brazil.

Headquarter: It is headquartered in Seoul, Republic of Korea

Key Functions: GGGI works to produce three major outcomes: adoption and implementation of green growth plans; provision of research for policymakers; and private sector engagement in the implementation of the national green growth plans. The organization uses three approaches to achieve these outcomes: Green Growth Planning & Implementation (GGP&I), Knowledge Development & Management (KDM), and Public-Private Cooperation (PPC).

Funding: Funds are given by Contributing members. Contributing members are defined as Member countries that make a multi-year financial contribution of core funding of no less than USD 15 million over three years. Participating members are defined as Member countries that are not contributing members.

India specific trivia:

GGGI has been working in India to promote green growth and sustainable development since 2013.

GGGI has worked at national, state, and city levels to develop and implement green growth strategies that reconcile short-term priorities with long-term vision of higher economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion

At the state level, GGGI worked closely with the governments of Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh (HP), and Punjab to develop comprehensive green growth strategies together with each.

GGGI also supported each of the three state governments in adopting integrated analytical approaches to assess green growth challenges and prioritize opportunities across key sectors, including energy, water, agriculture, and forestry

Building on these strategies, in 2015, GGGI supported the state governments in implementing specific green growth opportunities by formulating detailed project proposals, policy implementation roadmaps, and capacity building initiatives.

 

KIMO (Local Authorities International Environmental Organisation)

Established When and by Whom: KIMO was founded in August 1990 by four municipalities and from this modest start has grown in size to represent over 70 members in Belgium, Denmark, The Faroe Islands, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Headquarter: Esbjerg, Denmark

Key Functions:

• KIMO is committed to the development of sustainable coastal communities by:
• Preventing pollution of the seas and coastal waters of North Western Europe and preserving, improving and enhancing them for future generations
• Protecting coastal communities from the impacts of marine pollution and climate change.
• Representing its member local authorities and associated members at an international and national level.

 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Established When and by Whom:   It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly.

Headquarter: Geneva, Switzerland

Key Functions:

• The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research.
• Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute on a voluntary basis.
• The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in two equal parts, between the IPCC and an American Environmentalist.

The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:

1. Human-induced climate change,
2. The impacts of human-induced climate change,
3. Options for adaptation and mitigation.

Funding: The IPCC receives funding through the IPCC Trust Fund, established in 1989 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

India specific trivia: India will have its own climate change models to project the impact of global warming over the decades and these will form part of the forthcoming Sixth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Reports that is expected to be available in 2020.

 

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Established When and by Whom: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organisation.

Founded in 1948, today IUCN the largest professional global conservation network. IUCN has more than 1,200 member organizations including 200+ government and 900+ non-government organizations.

Headquarter: The Union’s headquarters are located in Gland, near Geneva, in Switzerland.

Key Functions: Conserving biodiversity is central to the mission of IUCN. The main areas of function are:

1. Science  – the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™.
2. Action – hundreds of conservation projects all over the world.
3. Influence – through the collective strength of more than 1,200 government and non-governmental Member organizations.

Funding:  Funded by governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies, foundations, member organisations and corporations.

More about the IUCN

Governance by a Council elected by member organizations every four years at the IUCN World Conservation Congress.

Observer Status at the United Nations General Assembly.

India specific trivia:

• India became a State Member of IUCN in 1969, through the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• The IUCN India Country Office was established in 2007 in New Delhi.
• IUCN India works with Members and Commissions to reduce ecosystem and species loss by providing the necessary tools and knowledge to value, conserve and use biodiversity sustainability; enhance governance and policy for better management of ecosystems and habitats, including protected areas; and address challenges related to poverty alleviation, food security and climate change.  

 

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Established When and by Whom: It was founded as a result of the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference) in 1972

Headquarter: Nairobi, Kenya

Key Functions:

• It coordinates UN’s environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices.
• Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
• UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development projects
• UNEP has aided in the formulation of guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international trade in potentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air pollution, and contamination of international waterways
• UNEP is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
• The International Cyanide Management Code, a program of best practice for the chemical’s use at gold mining operations, was developed under UNEP’s aegis.

Funding:  The three main sources of funding of UN Environment are the UN Regular Budget, the Environment Fund, the core funding that enables UN Environment to implement its global and regional work, and Earmarked Contributions.

India specific trivia: UN Environment has sponsored the development of solar loan programs, with attractive return rates, to buffer the initial deployment costs and entice consumers to consider and purchase solar PV systems.

The most famous example is the solar loan program sponsored by UN Environment helped 100,000 people finance solar power systems in India.

Success in India’s solar program has led to similar projects in other parts of the developing world like Tunisia, Morocco, Indonesia and Mexico.

 

World Nature Organization (WNO)

Established When and by Whom:  WNO initiative was born in 2010 by states which are threatened by rising sea levels. The WNO Treaty officially entered into force on 1st May 2014.

Location : Geneva

Key Functions:

• It is an intergovernmental organisation which promotes global environmental protection.
• WNO acts as a centre of competence for environmental protection, green technologies and sustainability, and as a mediator and initiator, making available experience of practical applications and strategies, offering support on all issues related to responsible conduct as regards the natural environment and its resources and assisting States to benefit from efficient development and from scientific and technology transfer.
• The World Nature Organization  promotes sustainable conduct as regards the natural environment, together with new, environments-friendly technologies, green economies and renewable energies.

India specific trivia: India is not a member

World Food Programme

Established When and by Whom:  The WFP was formally established in 1963 by the FAO and the United Nations General Assembly.

Headquarter: Rome

Key Functions:

• The WFP strives to eradicate hunger and malnutrition, with the ultimate goal in mind of eliminating the need for food aid itself.
• WFP’s efforts focus on emergency assistance, relief and rehabilitation, development aid and special operations.  
• WFP food aid is also directed to fight micronutrient deficiencies, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, and combat disease, including HIV and AIDS.
• WFP has coordinated the five-year Purchase for Progress (P4P) pilot project which assists smallholder farmers by offering them opportunities to access agricultural markets and to become competitive players in the marketplace.

Funding:  The WFP operations are funded by voluntary donations from world governments, corporations and private donors

India specific trivia: The World Food Programme has been working in India for over 50 years. In line with the developments in India, WFP has realigned its focus from a food aid provider to a catalytic partner to the Government of India, strengthening food-based social safety nets.

 

International Whaling Organization

Established When and by Whom:  The IWC was set up under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling which was signed in Washington DC on 2nd December 1946.

Headquarter:

Key Functions:

• The preamble to the Convention states that its purpose is to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry.  
• An integral part of the Convention is its legally binding ‘Schedule.’  The Schedule sets out specific measures that the IWC has collectively decided are necessary in order to regulate whaling and conserve whale stocks.
• These measures include catch limits (which may be zero as it the case for commercial whaling) by species and area, designating specified areas as whale sanctuaries, protection of calves and females accompanied by calves, and restrictions on hunting methods. Unlike the Convention, the Schedule can be amended and updated when the Commission meets (a change requires at least three quarters majority agreement).
• There are a number of reasons why changes to the Schedule may be necessary.  These include new information from the Scientific Committee, and variations in the requirements of aboriginal subsistence whalers.
• The Commission also co-ordinates and, in several cases, funds conservation work on many species of cetacean. In addition to research, this includes building an international entanglement response capacity, working to prevent ship strikes, and establishment of Conservation Management Plans for key species and populations.  
• The Commission has also adopted a Strategic Plan for Whalewatching to facilitate the further development of this activity in a way which is responsible and consistent with international best practice.

Funding:  Financial contributions from member governments form the IWC’s core income, but additional voluntary donations to support particular work programmes are generously made by non-governmental organisations (NGOs), industry bodies, and also by member governments.

India specific trivia: India is a Member

Bio-carbon Fund initiative

Established When and by Whom:  The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is a multilateral fund, supported by donor governments and managed by the World Bank. It is has been operational from 2013.

Headquarter: USA

Key Functions:

• It seeks to promote reduced greenhouse gas emissions from the land sector, from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+), and from sustainable agriculture, as well as smarter land-use planning, policies and practices.
• The initiative will be managed by the BioCarbon Fund, a public-private program housed within the World Bank that mobilizes finance for activities that sequester or conserve carbon emissions in forest and agricultural systems.
• The new Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes seeks to scale up land-management practices across large landscapes, including improved livestock management, climate-smart agriculture, and sustainable forest management, with a focus on protecting forests and greening and securing supply chains.
• It will engage a broader range of actors, including the private sector, initially through a portfolio of four to six programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Funding: Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States together committed $280 million – up to $135 million from Norway, $120 million from the U.K, and $25 million from the U.S. – as part of their efforts to slow climate change.

 

Arctic Council

Established When and by Whom: The Arctic Council was founded on the initiative of the Government of Finland in September 1989 where officials from the 8 Arctic Countries met in Rovaniemi, Finland, to discuss cooperative measures to protect the Arctic environment.

Headquarter: The location of the Secretariat was rotated biennially with the Chairmanship of the Arctic Council.

Key Functions:

The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic States, Arctic indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.

The main focus areas of the Arctic Council are:

1. The Environment and climate change
2. Bio-diversity
3. Oceans
4. The indigenous Arctic peoples

Funding: By member states

India specific trivia: India is an Observer State