PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.
About Sir Sankaran Nair:
Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.
Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:
Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.
Other Contributions:
Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following aroused a wave of popular indignation that led to the massacre by the British at Jallianwala Bagh?
(a) The Arms Act (b) The Public Safety Act (c) The Rowlatt Act (d) The Vernacular Press Act
N4S: This article breaks down the appointment process of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) and what it means for institutional independence. It raises a simple but crucial question—how can an auditor truly be independent if the very government they audit is the one appointing them? The recent Supreme Court intervention has brought this issue back into the spotlight.
UPSC doesn’t just test facts; it expects aspirants to think critically. Take constitutional bodies, for example. A common mistake students make is memorizing provisions like Article 148 (which deals with the CAG’s appointment) without understanding their real-world impact. This article bridges that gap by showing how a lack of transparency in the selection process can weaken financial oversight, allowing government influence to creep in.
What makes this piece stand out is its practical approach. It doesn’t give you an assortment of points that explore roles of stakeholders in the selection process or strengthening the CAG’s powers through legislative changes. This kind of analysis helps aspirants develop a nuanced perspective, which is key to tackling UPSC’s increasingly analytical questions.
PYQ ANCHORING
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has a very vital role to play. Explain how this is reflected in the method and terms of his appointment as well as the range of powers he can exercise. [2018, GS 2]
“The duty of the Comptroller and Auditor General is not merely to ensure the legality of expenditure but also its propriety.” Comment. [2024,GS 2]
MICROTHEMES: Constitutional Bodies
“I am of the opinion that this dignitary or officer is probably the most important officer in the Constitution of India. He is the one man who is going to see that the expenses voted by Parliament are not exceeded or varied from what has been laid down by Parliament in the Appropriation Act.” – B.R. Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s words highlight the immense responsibility of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) in ensuring financial accountability. But what happens when the very process of appointing the CAG lacks transparency? Can an auditor, chosen solely by the government it audits, remain truly independent?
Recently, the Supreme Court has sought the Centre’s response to a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) questioning the government’s unchecked authority in appointing the CAG. The PIL argues that this practice weakens the Constitution’s promise of institutional independence and calls for a more transparent and accountable selection process.
This raises a crucial debate: Shouldn’t India, like many democracies worldwide, involve multiple stakeholders in choosing its top auditor? If the CAG’s role is to scrutinize government spending, can its effectiveness be ensured without an independent appointment process?
Present Appointment process
Article 148 of the Constitution stipulates that the CAG is to be appointed by the president by warrant under his hand and seal. Generally, a person with administrative experience and knowledge of accounts is chosen for the office.
Criticism Of The Present Appointment Process
This is not the first time the CAG’s appointment process is being criticized. The present appointment procedure has been subject to a few controversies in the past, such as:
The appointment of the CAG is often seen as being influenced by politicalconsiderations, rather than being based solely on merit.
Another issue related to the appointment of CAG is that it is not regulated by any specific law. The appointment process is not transparent and there are no clear criteria for the selection of CAG.
The CAG is appointed for a fixed term of 6 years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. This has led to criticism that the CAG’s tenure is too short to allow for effective auditing and investigations.
The new Public Interest Litigation (PIL) challenges executive’s sole discretion in selecting the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). It argues that this process violates the Constitution’s principles of independence in several ways:
Weakening Checks and Balances: The CAG is supposed to independently audit government finances, acting as a watchdog. But if the government itself picks the auditor, the system of checks and balances is weakened. After all, how fair can an audit be if it’s controlled by the very entity being audited?
Threat to Institutional Independence: The Constitution grants the CAG autonomy, but since there’s no transparent process for appointing them, there’s always a risk that they might favor the government that appointed them.
Not in Line with Global Standards: Many democracies make sure that multiple institutions—not just the ruling government—have a say in appointing top auditors. India’s system, where the executive makes the decision alone, is an exception rather than the norm.
Conflict of Interest: The government decides how public money is spent and also picks the official responsible for auditing that spending. This overlap can lead to biased audits, reducing the credibility of the entire process.
Opaque Appointment Process: There’s no clarity on how the government selects the CAG. Without a clear and open method, the process becomes questionable, making people doubt whether the CAG is truly independent.
Risk of Government Influence: The CAG has a fixed tenure, but since the government controls the appointment, there’s always a concern that future career benefits (like post-retirement positions) might influence their decisions.
Loss of Public Trust: If people believe that the CAG isn’t truly independent, they’ll start doubting whether audits are fair and accurate. This can weaken faith in the government’s financial transparency.
Importance of the independence of CAG
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is an independent constitutional body that is responsible for auditing the financial transactions and accounts of the Government of India, as well as the transactions of certain other bodies and organizations that are financed by the government. If the audit has to be conducted without fear or favour and the results have to be credible, an adequate degree of independence from both the legislative and the executive branches of the government is essential.
The independence of the CAG is important for several reasons:
Ensuring accountability: The CAG acts as a check on the executive branch of government, ensuring that public funds are being used appropriately and that government officials are accountable for their actions. By conducting independent audits, the CAG helps to prevent financial mismanagement and corruption.
Maintaining transparency: The CAG’s reports are made public, providing citizens with information about how their tax money is being used. This helps to promote transparency and accountability in government.
Providing an independent perspective: The CAG is independent of the executive branch of government, which means that it can provide an unbiased and objective perspective on government financial transactions.
Improving governance: The CAG’s independent audits can identify areas where government policies and procedures can be improved, which can help to improve the overall effectiveness and efficiency of government.
Enhancing the public trust: The independence of the CAG ensures that the public trust in the government is maintained, as the CAG is free to carry out its mandate without any interference.
Overall, the independence of the CAG is critical for maintaining the integrity and transparency of government financial transactions, promoting good governance, and enhancing public trust in government.
Independence of CAG: A comparision of democracies
Factor
India
United States
United Kingdom
Germany
Canada
Appointment Process
Appointed by the President on PM’s recommendation
Appointed by President, confirmed by Senate
Appointed by the Queen, approved by Parliament
Elected by both houses of Parliament
Appointed by Governor-General on PM’s advice
Tenure & Security
6-year term or until 65, whichever is earlier
15-year term or until resignation
10-year term
Lifetime appointment (or until 65)
10-year term
Removal Process
By impeachment in Parliament
By impeachment (Congress)
By Parliament approval
By Parliamentary decision
By Parliament approval
Budgetary Independence
Funded by government; limited financial autonomy
Independent budget, approved by Congress
Independent funding from Parliament
Funded directly by Parliament
Funded by Parliament
Access to Information
Can request but faces delays in getting data
Strong legal mandate, can subpoena records
Full access to government records
Strongest access, legally protected
Full access to government data
Follow-up on Reports
Limited enforcement power, advisory role
Reports debated in Congress, high impact
Reports discussed in Parliament, taken seriously
Reports trigger immediate parliamentary action
Reports lead to mandatory government response
Influence on Policy
Advisory, government not bound by recommendations
Findings often shape legislative decisions
Direct influence on financial oversight
Strong influence on fiscal policies
Recommendations highly respected
Inference from the above table
Executive Control in Appointment – India’s CAG is appointed solely by the government, unlike the US, UK, and Germany, where Parliament or bipartisan committees play a role, ensuring greater independence.
Shorter Tenure – India’s 6-year term is shorter than the US (15 years), UK (10 years), and Germany (lifetime), making it more vulnerable to political influence.
Limited Financial Autonomy – India’s CAG depends on the government for funding, whereas US, UK, and Germany’s audit bodies are funded directly by Parliament, ensuring financial independence.
Weak Access to Information – India’s CAG faces bureaucratic delays in obtaining records, whereas the US GAO has subpoena power, and Germany’s BRH has unrestricted access to government data.
Lack of Mandatory Follow-Up – CAG reports in India are advisory, whereas in UK, Germany, and Canada, the government must respond, making audits more impactful.
Less Policy Influence – In India, CAG reports spark debates but rarely lead to action, while in US, UK, and Germany, audit findings often result in legislative changes.
Weaker Removal Process Control – Though CAG’s impeachment process is strict, other democracies involve Parliament in removals, ensuring better checks against misuse of power.
An assessment of CAG’s Appointment process
For the first four decades after independence, the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General appeared to have functioned in an efficient yet low-key manner. Its impact was also limited. This was primarily due to the following structural reasons:
Limited autonomy: The CAG is understaffed and under-resourced. It is not completely autonomous, as it is dependent on the government for funding and resources. The CAG’s independence is also affected by the fact that its budget and staff are provided by the government, which can leave it vulnerable to political pressure This has affected its ability to conduct independent audits and investigations.
Lack of legal powers: The CAG does not have the legal powers to enforce compliance with its recommendations, which limits the impact of its audits.
Lack of transparency: The CAG is not accountable to any other body, which makes it difficult to hold it accountable for its actions and decisions. The CAG’s reports are not always made public, which can limit transparency and accountability.
Highly centralized nature: The highly centralised nature of the organisation has also hampered its ability to function in a country as vast and complex as the Indian Union. Although the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General has a vast number of staff, especially when contrasted to its counterparts in countries like the UK and the US, it revolves around the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General located in Delhi and suffers from an overly centralised managerial style.
These structural shortcomings created the following issues in the functioning of the CAG:
Limited access to information: The CAG faces difficulty in obtaining information from government departments and agencies, which impedes its ability to conduct effective audits. For example, In 2012, the CAG faced difficulty in obtaining information from the Ministry of Defence regarding the procurement of fighter jets. This made it difficult for the CAG to conduct a comprehensive audit of the procurement process.
Political interference: The CAG may be subject to political pressure and interference, which can affect its ability to conduct independent audits. In 2013, the CAG faced allegations of political interference when it audited the allocation of 2G spectrum licenses. The report was criticized by the ruling government, which led to allegations that the CAG’s findings were politically motivated.
Lack of resources: The CAG may be under-resourced, which can limit its ability to conduct comprehensive audits and investigations. In 2014, the CAG faced criticism for not having enough resources to conduct a comprehensive audit of the implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).
Limited powers: The CAG does not have the power to enforce compliance with its recommendations, which has limited the impact of its audits. In 2015, the CAG’s report on the implementation of the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) highlighted several issues with the implementation of the scheme, but the CAG did not have the power to enforce compliance with its recommendations.
Time-consuming: The auditing process is time-consuming as it involves gathering information from various departments, which can take a long time to complete. For example, In 2020, CAG took more than a year to complete its audit of the GST compensation and collections, which was submitted to the parliament in 2021. The delay was caused by the time-consuming process of gathering data from various government departments and agencies.
However, despite these shortcomings in its structure, the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General has played a significant checking and controlling function, especially in the last few decades. Some of its successes include:
Bofors Scam: In 1989 an audit report on the Bofors scam shook the foundations of the Congress government led by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, leading to the walk-out of the entire opposition in Parliament.
Fodder Scam: In 1996 an audit of the Bihar government exposed the ‘fodder scam’, which eventually led to the resignation of Chief Minister Lalu Yadav.
Irregularities in Procurement process: In 2001 an audit report raised questions about the way the army procured goods for use during the Kargil war of 1999. It created doubts about the overall procurement process employed by the Ministry of Defence. These reports garnered a lot of public attention but resulted in little by way of actual prosecutions and convictions of those who were responsible for the fraudulent acts.
These episodes pointed to the important role performed by the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General. It generated both publicity and a degree of credibility for the office in the minds of the press and the public. These would become crucial aids that later occupants of the office could draw upon to shine a light on acts of corruption in public life.
Way Forward: Ensuring a Transparent and Accountable CAG Appointment
To uphold the independence of India’s top auditor, the appointment process must be more transparent and aligned with global best practices.
A Balanced Selection Process: India can take inspiration from the UK, USA, and Canada, where multiple stakeholders, including opposition leaders and parliamentary committees, are involved in selecting the auditor. A search committee comprising the Prime Minister, Home Minister, and Leader of the Opposition could ensure a fairer selection.
Expanding CAG’s Role: The CAG should also audit Panchayati Raj Institutions and state-funded societies to enhance financial oversight.
Strengthening Powers: Like in New Zealand, CAG should have the authority to hold the government and third parties accountable for financial losses.
Reforming the CAG Act: The 1971 Act should be amended to allow pre-audit of defense expenditures above ₹3,000 crore and grant State Auditors the status of High Court judges.
Ensuring Timely Access to Records: Similar to the RTI Act, records should be provided within a set timeframe (e.g., seven days), with strict accountability for delays.
#BACK2BASICS: INDEPENDENCE OF CAG
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is an independent constitutional body that is responsible for auditing the financial transactions and accounts of the Government of India, as well as the transactions of certain other bodies and organizations that are financed by the government. If the audit has to be conducted without fear or favour and the results have to be credible, an adequate degree of independence from both the legislative and the executive branches of the government is essential.
Article 148 of the Constitution ensures the independence of the CAG in the following ways:
Expenditures Charged on the CFI: The salary of the CAG and other expenditures for the administration of his office, including all salaries, allowances, and pension of persons serving in that office, are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and are not votable by Parliament.
Rights cant be changed to the disadvantage: The salary and the rights in respect of leave of absence, pension, or age of retirement of the CAG are not to be changed to his/her disadvantage during his/her tenure.
Not eligible for reappointment: The CAG is not be eligible for further office either under the Government of India or under any state government after ceasing to hold his/her office.
Secutity of tenure: The CAG enjoys security of tenure. Though appointed by the president, he/she does not hold office at the pleasure of the president as he/she can be removed from office only by the special procedure laid down in the Constitution.
Conditions of service: The president prescribes the conditions of service of the persons in the Indian Audits and Accounts Department and the administrative powers of the CAG after consulting the CAG.
China has suspended exports of a wide range of critical minerals and magnets after US’s tariff embargo.
What Are Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and RE Magnets?
REEs are a group of 17 elements in the periodic table, including Lanthanum (La), Neodymium (Nd), Europium (Eu), and Ytterbium (Yb).
Though not rare, they are found in low concentrations, making extraction challenging and costly.
Classification:
Light REEs (LREEs): Elements 57-63, such as La, Ce, Nd, and Sm.
Heavy REEs (HREEs): Elements 64-71, like Gd, Tb, Dy, and Er.
Scandium and Yttrium: Classified with HREEs due to similar chemical properties.
Rare Earth Magnets are powerful permanent magnets made from elements like Neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm), and Dysprosium (Dy).
They are far stronger and more efficient than traditional magnets, crucial for high-tech electronic applications.
Global Supply Chain of REEs:
REEs are abundant but difficult to extract economically.
China alone dominates, producing 70%of the global supply and controlling 80% of the refining capacity. REEs are primarily mined from China’s Bayan Obo mine.
Australia, USA, Brazil, and Russia also contribute, though less significantly.
Refining also is largelycontrolled by China, though other nations are working to build their own refining capabilities to reduce dependency.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. Monazite is a source of rare earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
[UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.
Linkage: India’s historical role as a voice for the “Global South” and how its current global positioning might be perceived differently. This article argues for the Global South to take a leading role, which resonates with India’s past image.
Mentor’s Comment: While current talks on delimitation focus on its effect on power-sharing between states and the Centre, another key change depends on it — the rollout of the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023. The Bill brought gender equality to the forefront of politics. However, this widespread acceptance has, in some ways, made open and critical discussion more difficult. A compassionate, inclusive feminism recognizes both structural and interpersonal challenges women face. It avoids oversimplifying gender struggles, respects men’s societal pressures, and promotes solidarity.
Today’s editorial discusses issues related to feminism. This content will be useful for GS Paper I in the Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A more compassionate approach to feminism could be the right strategy right now, as it helps gain support rather than create resistance.
Why is there a caution against applying a heavy structural lens to interpersonal relationships?
Complexity of Relationships: Interpersonal relationships are multifaceted and often not reducible to power dynamics or oppression. Eg: A husband may expect dinner but also contribute financially, which shows mutual care rather than domination.
Risk of Oversimplification: Applying the structural lens too heavily risks oversimplifying relationships, reducing them to battles for power. Eg: A disagreement over household chores might be seen as oppressive when it could be a negotiation of responsibilities.
Love and Care Are Often Present: Many relationships are underpinned by love, care, and mutual respect, which should not be ignored in the analysis. Eg: A father who supports his daughter’s education despite societal barriers demonstrates care beyond structural oppression.
Men’s Experiences and Contributions: Men also face societal pressures, including financial and emotional burdens, which can reshape family dynamics. Eg: A man who works long hours in difficult conditions to support his family might experience public humiliation, while his wife remains insulated from such public pressures.
Potential for Alienation: Focusing solely on structural analysis may alienate people, particularly those who feel embattled, like many men. Eg: Men who feel misunderstood in feminist discourse, especially those at the margins, may disengage from efforts for equality.
How can feminist discourse become more inclusive and compassionate?
Acknowledge Multiple Forms of Suffering: Feminism should recognize the varied experiences of suffering and responsibility faced by both women and men, especially from marginalized communities. Eg: Recognizing that men, particularly in low-income families, endure public humiliation due to financial pressures, while women often carry unpaid domestic responsibilities.
Avoid Oversimplifying Complex Dynamics: Instead of reducing all issues to power struggles, feminist discourse should appreciate the complexity of human relationships, where love, care, and duty often coexist with structural inequality. Eg: A couple might have disagreements over housework, but these can be opportunities for negotiation rather than a sign of patriarchal oppression.
Promote Solidarity, Not Antagonism: Feminist discourse should focus on creating solidarity, especially by addressing the emotional and economic pressures that shape men’s lives, inviting them to participate in gender equity efforts. Eg: Instead of criticizing men for their limitations, feminist discourse can encourage mutual understanding and support for gender equality.
Recognize the Interconnection of Personal and Political: Feminism should find a balance between the structural and the interpersonal, understanding that both need attention without conflating them. Eg: In rural areas, a woman may face different challenges from a financially independent urban woman, and addressing these separately helps focus on their unique struggles.
Which aspects of current feminist narratives risk alienating both men and women, especially from marginalised backgrounds?
Oversimplification of Gender Struggles: Current feminist narratives often reduce complex interpersonal relationships to mere power struggles, ignoring the nuanced and varied experiences of individuals. This can alienate those who may not fit neatly into these narratives, particularly men from marginalized backgrounds who feel misunderstood. Eg: Depicting all men as perpetrators of patriarchy can alienate men who are struggling with their own economic and social pressures, leading to defensiveness rather than solidarity.
Blurring of Inequities: By merging vastly different forms of inequality, such as the struggles of financially independent urban women with those of rural women fearing violence, feminist discourse risks obscuring the real, context-specific challenges faced by each group. This can alienate individuals who feel their unique struggles are being overlooked. Eg: An urban woman’s struggles with household responsibilities may be portrayed in the same light as a rural woman’s safety concerns, which can cause friction and hinder support for both groups.
Antagonistic Tone Towards Men: A feminist narrative that is too focused on antagonism between the sexes, without acknowledging the emotional and economic pressures men face, can alienate men and prevent productive dialogue. This risks creating an “us versus them” mentality, undermining the potential for cross-gender solidarity. Eg: Men in low-income families, facing public humiliation due to financial hardship, may feel blamed for perpetuating patriarchal structures, even when they are also victims of societal pressures. This makes it harder for them to support feminist goals.
What has steps taken by Indian Government?
Legislative Reforms for Women’s Safety and Empowerment: The government has enacted laws to improve women’s safety and protect their rights. Eg: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) was enacted to provide legal protection to women facing violence within the home. Additionally, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013) expanded the definition of sexual offenses and introduced stricter punishments for crimes like rape and acid attacks, in response to the Nirbhaya case.
Schemes for Economic Empowerment: The government has introduced various schemes aimed at economically empowering women, especially in rural and marginalized communities. Eg: The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (2016) provides free LPG connections to women from below-poverty-line families, reducing their dependency on traditional cooking methods that often expose them to health hazards. Similarly, schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao focus on improving education and access to opportunities for girls.
Reservation and Affirmative Action in Education and Employment: The government has implemented affirmative action measures to enhance women’s participation in education and employment. Eg: The Reservation for Women in Local Governance mandates one-third of seats in Panchayats (local governing bodies) be reserved for women, encouraging their participation in political processes and decision-making. Furthermore, policies like the Maternity Benefit Act (2017) aim to protect women’s rights in the workplace by providing paid maternity leave.
Way forward:
Promote Intersectional Feminism: The government and society should adopt an intersectional approach to feminism, addressing the unique challenges faced by women from diverse backgrounds, including rural, urban, and marginalized communities. Eg: Tailoring policies like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao to address region-specific challenges, such as safety concerns in rural areas and educational disparities in urban areas, can create more inclusive support for all women.
Engage Men in Gender Equality Efforts: Foster dialogue and understanding by engaging men in discussions around gender equality, recognizing their societal pressures, and encouraging shared responsibility in family and community roles. Eg: Programs like #HeForShe can be expanded to include more men, emphasizing their role in supporting gender equity at home and in the workplace, helping to bridge the gap between feminist discourse and broader societal change.
The Right to Information (RTI) Act has clearly helped make those in power more accountable in India. However, in recent years, there have been efforts to weaken some of its important provisions, even though the Act — a major reform — was passed 20 years ago.
What is the role of Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act in promoting transparency?
Balances Privacy and Public Interest: Section 8(1)(j) permits denial of personal information only if it has no relationship to public activity or interest or causes an unwarranted invasion of privacy. Eg: An officer’s medical records may be withheld, but details of their salary or qualifications can be disclosed if it serves public interest.
Includes a Public Interest Override: Even if information is personal, it must be disclosed if larger public interest is involved. Eg: A bureaucrat’s caste certificate was disclosed in public interest when he was accused of using a fake caste certificate to secure a reserved post.
Enhances Accountability of Public Officials: Prevents misuse of power by allowing scrutiny of officials’ actions, qualifications, and benefits. Eg: RTI queries have uncovered cases of bogus educational degrees among elected representatives and civil servants.
Empowers Citizens to Seek Information: It strengthens democratic participation by giving citizens access to relevant information on public functionaries. Eg: Citizens have used RTI to access asset declarations of elected representatives and government officers.
Prevents Blanket Denial of Information: Ensures that authorities cannot reject RTI requests merely by labeling the information as ‘personal’; they must justify how it affects privacy and weigh it against public interest. Eg: Information about government employees’ attendance records or transfers can be accessed to detect nepotism or irregularities.
Why does Section 44(3) of the DPDP Act, 2023 worry transparency advocates?
Removes Public Interest Safeguard: Section 44(3) amends Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act by eliminating the provision that allowed disclosure of personal information in public interest. Eg: A fake caste certificate case could now be shielded from scrutiny as the information might be denied without evaluating public interest.
Enables Blanket Denial Through Vague Definition: The term “personal information” is broad and undefined, enabling authorities to classify many types of public-relevant data as private. Eg: Details like educational qualifications or property disclosures of public servants could be denied under the label of “personal”.
Undermines RTI as a Transparency Tool: It weakens the RTI Act’s core intent by restricting access to information that previously helped expose corruption and misconduct. Eg: RTI requests that once revealed official misconduct or nepotism in postings may now be rejected citing privacy under the DPDP Act.
How does the DPDP amendment deviate from the intent of the K.S. Puttaswamy judgment?
Ignores the Balancing Principle of Privacy and Transparency: The K.S. Puttaswamy judgment (2017) upheld the right to privacy but emphasized that it must be balanced with other fundamental rights, including the right to information and public interest. Eg: The DPDP amendment removes the RTI Act’s public interest test, allowing personal information to be withheld even when it reveals corruption or fraud.
Undermines Democratic Accountability: The judgment did not suggest overriding transparency laws like RTI but stressed minimum and necessary restrictions on information access. Eg: Instead of proportionate safeguards, the DPDP Act allows authorities to blanket-deny RTI requests without assessing public relevance.
Distorts the Spirit of “Informed Citizenry”: Puttaswamy emphasized that transparency is essential for democracy, and privacy cannot be used to shield public officials from scrutiny. Eg: Information such as public officials’ property details or caste certificates may now be refused, limiting citizens’ ability to hold them accountable.
What information could now be denied under the amended RTI provisions as ‘personal’?
Educational Qualifications and Certificates: Details about the academic background or degrees of public servants could be withheld as “personal information” under the amended provision. Eg: RTI queries that previously revealed fake degrees of elected representatives may now be denied.
Caste and Community Certificates: Information related to caste status, often crucial in verifying eligibility for reservation benefits, may be deemed private. Eg: In cases where a public official allegedly used a fake caste certificate, such details could be denied under the privacy shield.
Property, Assets, and Financial Disclosures: Disclosures regarding property holdings, assets, and liabilities of government employees might be refused by classifying them as personal. Eg: RTI applications that earlier exposed disproportionate assets could now be blocked.
Way forward:
Restore Public Interest Safeguard: Amend the DPDP Act to reinstate the public interest clause from Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, ensuring transparency is not overridden by vague privacy claims.
Define ‘Personal Information’ Clearly: Provide a narrow and precise definition of “personal information” to prevent misuse and ensure critical public accountability data remains accessible.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.
Linkage: The discussion from 2020 highlights the ongoing attention on potential changes to the RTI Act. It shows that the issue of amending the RTI Act and its effects has been a concern for some time.
A new study by researchers Sujit Raghunathrao Jagadale and Javed M. Shaikh from IIM Amritsar looks at the issue of stubble burning by examining how government policies and market systems are failing to manage the problem effectively.
Why do farmers continue stubble burning despite its harm to air quality?
Cost-Effective Method: Stubble burning is the cheapest way for farmers to clear their fields after harvesting. Eg: Farmers burn stubble to quickly prepare their land for the next crop, especially for wheat, without incurring high labor or machinery costs.
Lack of Affordable Alternatives: There are limited affordable and efficient alternatives to stubble burning. Eg: Farmers often do not have access to technology or subsidies for machines that can manage stubble, such as Happy Seeder or bio-decomposers.
Government’s Focus on High-Yield Crops: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy incentivizes the cultivation of wheat and rice, leading to monocropping. Eg: Farmers are encouraged to grow rice continuously, which results in an abundance of stubble that needs to be disposed of quickly.
Debt and Economic Pressure: Many farmers face financial pressures, including debt and low returns on their crops, which makes burning stubble a way to save time and money. Eg: Farmers often sell their crops to middlemen at low prices, leaving them with insufficient income to invest in sustainable farming practices.
Lack of Strong Enforcement or Support: Although stubble burning is penalized, enforcement of laws is weak, and farmers often feel the state does not provide adequate support for eco-friendly methods. Eg: Despite penalties, farmers feel little pressure to change practices when there is insufficient governmental support or infrastructure for alternatives.
How does India’s MSP policy influence stubble burning?
Encourages Monocropping: The MSP policy promotes the cultivation of high-yield crops like rice and wheat, leading to monocropping, which results in a large amount of stubble that must be cleared. Eg: Farmers in Punjab often grow rice followed by wheat, creating a cycle where large quantities of rice stubble need to be burned to prepare the soil for the next crop.
Limits Crop Diversification: The MSP system prioritizes wheat and rice over other crops, making it economically unfeasible for farmers to switch to more sustainable practices or crops that would reduce stubble burning. Eg: Despite the potential for growing other crops, farmers focus on rice and wheat to benefit from MSP, leaving them with stubble that they have no economically viable option to manage.
Financial Constraints: The MSP rates for crops like rice and wheat have remained stagnant, making it harder for farmers to invest in alternatives to stubble burning, such as machinery or composting. Eg: With wheat MSP seeing only minimal increases, farmers struggle to cover costs for labor and inputs, leading them to resort to stubble burning as the most cost-effective option to clear fields.
What has the government done in this situation?
Implemented Subsidies for Machinery: The government has provided subsidies for the purchase of machinery like the Happy Seeder to help farmers manage stubble without burning. Eg: The Punjab government has distributed equipment like straw management machines under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization to reduce stubble burning.
Awareness Campaigns: The government has conducted awareness programs to educate farmers about the harmful effects of stubble burning and encourage them to adopt alternative practices. Eg: The Ministry of Agriculture and local bodies in states like Punjab and Haryana have launched campaigns to raise awareness about the environmental and health risks of stubble burning.
Legal Measures and Penalties: Various state governments, including Punjab, have imposed fines and penalties on farmers found burning stubble, aiming to deter the practice. Eg: The Punjab government introduced a fine for stubble burning, with penalties reaching up to Rs 2,500 for each violation, although enforcement remains challenging.
Way forward:
Promote Crop Diversification: Encourage farmers to shift from paddy to less water-intensive and non-stubble-generating crops through assured procurement and better MSP for alternative crops. Eg: Incentivize crops like millets and pulses to reduce stubble generation.
Strengthen Support and Infrastructure: Scale up access to sustainable stubble management technologies and ensure timely financial and logistic support to small and marginal farmers. Eg: Expand reach of Happy Seeder and bio-decomposer solutions through local cooperatives and custom hiring centers.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three Mega cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious probelm in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so?
Linkage: Delhi’s severe air pollution, especially at certain times of the year, is caused by a combination of its location in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, nearby states burning crop stubble, and weather conditions that trap pollutants.
The Telangana government has officially implemented the sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) into three groups, following a Supreme Court judgment in August 2024 that upheld the constitutionality of sub-classifying SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to grant separate quotas for the most marginalized groups.
About Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Their Subcategorization:
SCs are a historically marginalized group identified in India’s Constitution to receive preferential treatment in education, employment, and political representation.
Constitutional Provisions:
Article 341: Empowers the President to specify castes as SCs within states or UTs.
Article 342: Allows Parliament to include/exclude castes from the SC list.
While grouped for reservations, disparities exist within SCs, with some groups being more disadvantaged than others.
Subcategorization involves dividing SCs into smaller groups based on social, economic, and educational backwardness, ensuring the most marginalized receive targeted benefits.
Sub-classification of SCs and STs for reservations is subject to judicial review to prevent misuse.
Supreme Court Verdict on Sub-categorization: State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2020) Case
In its August 2024 verdict, the Supreme Court allowed states to sub-classify SCs and STs, enabling separate quotas for the most marginalized groups.
Key Points:
Empirical Data: Subclassification must be based on data of systemic discrimination, not political motives.
Creamy Layer: Excludes the more advanced members of SCs/STs, applying the creamy layer principle.
Quota Limits: No sub-categorization can exceed the overall constitutional quota ceiling.
First-Generation Benefit: Reservations are restricted to the first generation of a family that has not benefitted from previous reservations.
[UPSC 2005] Which one of the following statements is correct regarding population?
(a) Bihar has the highest percentage of Scheduled Castes in its population.
(b) The decadal growth of population of India (1991-2001) has been below 20%.
(c) Mizoram is the Indian State with the least population.
(d) Pondicherry has the highest sex ratio among the Union Territories.
The KATRIN (Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment) has made a groundbreaking achievement by measuring neutrino mass with a new precision.
About the KATRIN Experiment:
The KATRIN is located at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), specifically on its Campus North site in Karlsruhe, Germany.
It is aimed at measuring the mass of the electron antineutrino with sub-eV precision.
It has measured the mass of neutrinos by studying the beta decay of tritium, a radioactive form of hydrogen.
The mass was inferred by analyzing the energy of the emitted electrons.
Technological Setup:
A 70-meter-long beamline with a powerful tritium source.
A 10-meter-wide spectrometer to measure the energy of emitted electrons with high precision.
Key Findings:
KATRIN has set a new upper limit for neutrino mass at less than 0.45 eV/c² (8 × 10⁻³⁷ kg), nearly twice as precise as previous measurements from 2022.
Data Collection was based on five campaigns from 2019-2021, totalling 250 days of data.
Neutrinos and Their Properties
Neutrinos are extremely light subatomic particles that rarely interact with matter, making them difficult to detect.
They are found in cosmic rays and solar radiation.
Properties:
Mass: Their small mass influences cosmic structure formation, such as galaxies and clusters.
Weak Interaction: They interact via the weak nuclear force, allowing them to pass through vast amounts of matter.
They are essential in particle reactions and play a key role in galaxy formation and the study of dark matter.
[UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
1.Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
In a major breakthrough, Indian researchers have developed a new type of laser that can be placed directly onto silicon chips, a key component of modern computers.
What is Silicon Photonics?
Silicon photonics is a technology that uses light (photons) instead of electrical signals to transmit data inside computer systems.
Light can carry more data at higher speeds with less energy than electricity, making it a promising technology for future computing and data transfer.
Traditional silicon chips struggle to produce light, requiring external lasers, which were inefficient and costly.
Silicon photonics can significantly enhance data transfer speed and efficiency, benefiting industries like data centers and telecommunications.
About the Miniaturized Laser Technology
Indian researchers have successfully integrated a laser directly onto a silicon chip, eliminating the need for separate lasers.
The laser is made using gallium arsenide (where 20% of gallium atoms had been replaced with indium to achieve optimal light emission), which helps silicon emit light, a crucial step since silicon alone cannot produce light efficiently.
It uses minimal power, ideal for high-performance, energy-efficient computers.
Direct integration reduces costs, making the technology scalable for mass production.
This innovation boosts computing power, particularly in data centers where fast data transfer is critical.
Efforts are underway to enhance its durability, especially at higher temperatures, for broader industrial use.
[UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?
India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully tested the Mk-II(A) Laser-Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) system, marking a major achievement in the country’s defense capabilities.
About Mk-II(A) Laser-Directed Energy Weapon (DEW) System
The Mk-II(A) Laser-DEW system, also known as Sahastra Shakti, is an indigenously developed Laser weapon with an operational range of 5km.
It is designed to neutralize threats like drones, missiles, and remotely piloted aircraft using a 30-kilowatt laser.
It is developed by DRDO’s Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS), in collaboration with other DRDO labs, academic institutions, and Indian industries.
It focuses primarily on neutralizing aerial threats such as drones and missiles, offering a cutting-edge solution against modern warfare tactics.
How does it work?
It utilizes radar and Electro-Optic (EO) systems for target detection.
The laser engages the target at the speed of light, causing structural failure or significant damage.
It delivers rapid, precise strikes with lethal impact in seconds.
The energy used for a few seconds of firing costs as little as a couple of litres of petrol, making it cost-efficient.
The 30-kilowatt laser ensures quick target neutralization with minimal collateral damage.
Significance of the Mk-II(A) Laser-DEW System
Cost-Effective: Far more affordable than traditional missile systems, providing sustainable defense options.
Reduced Ammunition Dependence: Reduces reliance on expensive ammunition, offering a long-term sustainable defence solution.
Precision & Speed: Engages targets almost instantaneously, minimizing collateral damage and ensuring high-value targets are neutralized quickly.
Strategic Advantage: Enhances India’s defence capabilities, providing an advanced method for protecting infrastructure and addressing evolving aerial threats.
[UPSC 2011] With reference to Indian defence, which one of the following statements is NOT correct?
(a) With the induction of Prithvi-II, the IAF is the only air force in the world with surface-to-surface ballistic missiles under its command.
(b) Sukhoi-30 MKI jet fighters can launch air-to-air and air-to-surface precision missiles
(c) Trishul is a supersonic surface-to-air missile with a range of 30 km
(d) The indigenously built INS Prabal can launch surface-to-surface missiles
