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In art and culture part, how to approach the Indian painting portion? What should be the focus area of study? I’m asking this because it’s full of facts and I couldn’t scavenge out highlighting points.

Moving on from our last discussed piece – Tribal Issues | Part 2 | Pre Independence Tribal Revolts

The task of integrating the tribal people into the mainstream was extremely complex. This was because of the varied conditions under which they live in different parts of the country, and their different languages and distinct cultures. The 1971 Census recorded over 400 tribal communities numbering nearly 38 million people and constituting nearly 6.9% of the Indian population.

Effects of colonialism

Colonialism brought radical transformation of the tribals.

#1. Isolation:

Their relative isolation was eroded by the penetration of market forces and they were integrated with the British and princely administrations.

#2. Debt-trap:

A large number of moneylenders, traders, revenue farmers and other middlemen and petty officials invaded the tribal areas and disrupted the tribals’ traditional way of life.
They were increasingly engulfed in debt and lost their lands to outsiders.
They were often reduced to the position of agricultural labourers, sharecroppers and rack-rented tenants.
Many were forced to retreat further into the hills.

#3. Missionaries:

Simultaneously, ‘missionaries were destroying their art, their dances, their weaving and their whole culture’.

#4. Relation with forests:

Tribals depended on the forest for food, fuel and cattle feed and for raw materials for their handicrafts.
In many parts of India, the hunger for land by the immigrant peasants from the plains led to the destruction of forests, depriving the tribals of their traditional means of livelihood.
To conserve forests and to facilitate their commercial exploitation, the colonial authorities bought large tracts of forest lands under forest laws.
Laws forbade shifting cultivation and put severe restrictions on the tribals’ use of the forest and their access to forest products.

Roots of tribal policy

Heart of the tribal integration policy = preservation of the tribal people’s rich social and cultural heritage. Jawaharlal Nehru (JLN) = the main influence in shaping the govt’s attitude towards the tribals.

Challenges in tribal integration (According to JLN):

• To inspire them with confidence
• To make them feel at one with India
• To realise that they are part of India and have an honoured place in it
• India to them should signify not only a protecting force but a liberating one

  JLN thought that Indian nationalism was capable of accommodating the uniqueness of the tribal people.

  Approach to tribal integration:

  There were two major approaches regarding the place to be accorded to tribals in Indian society:

#1. To leave the tribal people alone, uncontaminated by modern influences & to let them stay more or less as they were.

Problem: External influences had already gone too far into tribal areas to keep them isolated. Hence it was neither desirable nor appropriate to keep them isolated. Thus this approach was rejected.

#2. Assimilating them completely and as quickly as possible into the Indian society. The disappearance of the tribal way of life was not to be regretted; it was to be welcomed because that would represent their ‘upliftment’.

Problem: Loss of the tribals’ social and cultural identity and of the many virtues they possessed. This was also rejected.

The JLN Approach

‘Making them an integral part of the Indian nation, even while maintaining their distinct identity and culture.’

Two parameters:

1. The tribal areas have to progress
2. The progress should be in their own way

The challenge was to combine these seemingly contradictory parameters.
The 5 guidelines:

1. Tribals should develop along the lines of their own genius- There should be no imposition or compulsion from outside
2. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected- No outsider should be able to take possession of tribal lands
3. To encourage the tribal languages
4. For administration, reliance should be placed on the tribal people themselves- administrators should be recruited from amongst them and trained
5. No over-administration of tribal areas- The effort should be to administer and develop the tribals through their own social and cultural institutions

   The measures undertaken: To give shape to this policy, beginning was made in the constitution itself:

Article 46: The state should

• Promote the educational and economic interests of the tribals, with special care
• Protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation, through special legislation

Schedule V & VI:

• The governors of the states in which tribal areas were situated were given special responsibility to protect tribal interests
• They were also given the power to- modify central and state laws in their application to tribal areas; frame regulations for the protection of tribals’ right to land; protect them from moneylenders
• Tribal Advisory Councils- In all states containing tribal areas; to advise on matters concerning the welfare of tribals.

Commissioner for SCs & STs: Appointed by the President; to investigate whether the safeguards provided for them were being observed

Political rights: Reservation of seats in the legislatures and positions in the administrative services for the STs.

Other developments

1. Legislative & executive action by the states- to prevent loss of tribal lands to non-tribal people and to prevent exploitation of the tribals by moneylenders
2. Special facilities & programmes- for the welfare and development of the tribal areas and the tribal people
3. Promotion of cottage and village industries and generation of employment
4. Large expenditures were undertaken and large sums set apart in the Five-Year Plans for the purpose
5. The funding for tribal welfare significantly increased after 1971

A Critical assessment of the measures

1. Weak execution of the well-intended measures- Due to divergence between centre and states & weak performance of Tribal Advisory Council
   Administrative apathy
2. Lack of development of tribal languages- It led to slow spread of education among tribals
3. Weakness in the justice delivery mechanism & lack of awareness about legal system- It led to continued alienation of tribal land, indebtedness, bonded labour
4. Development of class differences among tribal societies & upper class tribals co-operating with non-tribals- This led to inter-tribal conflict and discontentment

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This series is a part of How to crack the Tribal Issues for IAS Mains?. For a much detailed understanding, read up with all the post in this section as we develop this story in full.

We plan to take up two major revolts where the details can help you answer some static questions @IAS Mains. Post that, we will help you with a consolidated table on the all the major uprisings and revolts in India (leaving none!) and then will cover the revolts of North East India in a separate table.

The Santhal Uprising

Santhals: Live in Daman-i-koh= area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal
Uprising = ‘hool’ in Santhal language

This was one of the most massive revolt

1. A determined attempt to expel the outsiders — the dikus
2. Proclaimed the complete ‘annihilation’ of the alien regime

Social conditions which drove them to insurrection

• Zamindars, police, revenue & courts exercised a combined system of extortions, oppressive exactions, forcible dispossession of property, abuse & personal violence and a variety of petty tyrannies
• Usurious interest on loans (50 – 500 %)
• False measures at the haul and the market
• Wilful and uncharitable trespass by the rich by means of their untethered cattle, tattoos, ponies and even elephants, on the growing crops of the poorer race

How did the fire broke?

• By 1854, the tribal heads, the majhis and parganites, had begun to meet and discuss the possibility of revolting.
• Stray cases of the robbing of zamindars and moneylenders began to occur.
• 30 June, 1855- tribal leaders called an assembly of 6000 Santhals, representing 400 villages, at Bhaganidihi.
• They decided to raise the banner of revolt, get rid of the dikus once and for all, to usher in Satyug- ‘The Reign of Truth,’ and ‘True Justice.’

Belief in the magic

They believed that their actions had the blessings of God. Sido and Kanhu, the principal rebel leaders, claimed that Thakur (God) had communicated with them and told them to take up arms and fight for independence.

Non tribal help

1. Insurrection was helped by a large number of non-tribal and poor dikus.
2. Gwalas (milkmen) and others helped the rebels with provisions and services;
3. Lohars (blacksmiths) accompanied the rebel bands, keeping their weapons in good shape.

Suppression:

• Government realized the scale of the rebellion & organized a major military campaign
• Mobilized many regiments, declared Martial Law, offered rewards of upto Rs. 10,000 for the capture of various leaders
• The rebellion was crushed ruthlessly
• More than 15,000 Santhals were killed while tens of villages were destroyed.
• Sido was betrayed and captured and killed in August 1855
• Kanhu was arrested by accident at the tail-end of the rebellion in February 1866
• ‘The Rajmahal Hills were drenched with the blood of the fighting Santhal peasantry.’

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The Munda Rebellion

Rebellion = ‘ulgulan’ in Munda language | Leader = Birsa Munda

Reason:

For over 30 years the Munda sardars had been struggling against the destruction of their system of common land holdings by the intrusion of jagirdar, thikadar (revenue farmers) and merchant moneylenders.

The Break Out:

• Birsa had a vision of God & declared himself to be a divine messenger & possessing miraculous powers.
• Thousands supported him, seeing a messiah in him.
• Under the influence of the sardars, the religious movement soon acquired an agrarian and political form.
• Birsa moved from village to village, organizing rallies and mobilizing his followers on religious and political grounds.
• On Christmas Eve, 1899, Birsa proclaimed rebellion to establish Munda rule in the land.

The form of the revolt:

• Encouraged ‘the killing of thikadars and jagirdars and Rajas and Hakims (rulers) and Christians.’
• Armed with- swords, spears, battle-axes, and bows and arrows
• Satyug would be established in place of the present-day Kalyug

The end:

Birsa was captured in the beginning of February 1900 and died in jail in June. The rebellion had failed. But Birsa entered the realms of legend.

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This series is a part of How to crack the Tribal Issues for IAS Mains?. For a much detailed understanding, read up with all the post in this section as we develop this story in full.

Following up from the introduction post on tribal issues.

In this post, you are going to read up about the events and factors which changed the tribal life with the advent of british in India. Summarising the developments under the major heads.

The territorial living

Over centuries, the Tribals have evolved an intricate custodial mode of living. Tribals belong to their territories, which are the essence of their existence. Back in history, the Tribals were in effect self-governing ‘first nations’. In general and in most parts of the pre-colonial period, they were part of the ‘unknown frontier’ where the rule of the reign in fact did not extend. Tribals governed themselves outside of the influence of the particular ruler.

The entry of Europeans and subsequent colonisation transformed the relationship between the mainstream communities and tribal communities.

Exploitation for business

• They used forest produces for their business.
• Trees were cut down for timber. Forestland was used for tea, rubber and coffee plantations.
• Train lines and roads were built in forest areas. Routes from forest to sea coasts were built to transport goods.

Example 1: The early years of the expansion of the railway network, 1853 onwards, led to tremendous deforestation in peninsular India due to the railways’ requirements of fuel wood and construction timber.

Example 2: The Grand Trunk Road, which was built through tribal labour, helped in business, and there was an inflow of outsiders adding to the population. The so-called outsiders dominated the tribals in many ways. Most of the tribal families lost their agricultural lands and lived in a state of starvation. The tribals were also victims of a host of middlemen who operated between the new rulers and the tribals.

Private property

• The introduction of the alien concept of private property began with the Permanent Settlement of the British in 1793 and the establishment of the “Zamindari” system.
• It gave control over vast territories, including tribal territories, to feudal lords for the purpose of revenue collection by the British.
• This started the forced restructuring of the relationship of Tribals to their territories as well as the power relationship between Tribals and ‘others’.

Missionaries

• The missionaries, with the patronage of the government, spread Christianity among the tribals and helped them with health care and education.
• Unlike Hinduism and Islam, Christianity spread widely in the tribal regions with the patronage of the British and established a firm footing.
• The result was a feeling of discontent and unrest among the tribals.
• At this stage, a number of movements took place. They raised protesting voices against the oppression and exploitation by landlords and British rulers who in general, stood by the side of the landlords.

Some notable movements are the Kherwar movement (1871 -80), the Birsa Munda Movement (1874-1901), the Bhil Rebellion (1879-80), the Sardari Movement (1881-95), the Bastar Uprising (1910-11), and the Tana Bhagat Movement (1920-35).

What happened in the North-East?

1. Historically the north-east was never a part of mainland India.
2. The colonial incorporation of north-east took place much later than the rest of the Indian subcontinent.
3. Assam came under British control in 1826, Bengal was annexed in 1765, Garo Hills in 1873, Naga Hills in 1879 and Mizoram in 1881-90.

Consequently, the struggles for self-determination took various forms as independence to greater autonomy.

Factors inherent in Indian system which did not work for Indian Tribals

#1. Caste based religious system:

The predominant caste-based religion sanctioned and practiced a rigid and highly discriminatory hierarchical system.

This became the natural basis for the altered perception of Tribals by the ‘others’ in determining the social, and hence, the economic and political space in the emerging larger society.

#2. Upper caste rule:

Relegating the Tribals to the lowest rung in the social ladder was but natural. And it formed the basis of social and political decision making by the largely upper caste controlled mainstream.

The ancient Indian scriptures, scripted by the upper castes, also further provided legitimacy to this.

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This series is a part of How to crack the Tribal Issues for IAS Mains?. For a much detailed understanding, read up with all the post in this section as we develop this story in full.

Tribal Affairs/ Tribal Issues are one of those important subjects which have a healthy mix of static + dynamic portions across IAS Prelims and Mains.

#1. Syllabus

Prelims: History of India and Indian National Movement => includes all pre-independence movements, reasons etc

Mains:

1. Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues
2. The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different parts of the country
3. Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country => tribal policy post-independence & other developments
4. Society Point of View: Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India
   Population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies
5. Effects of globalization on Indian society
6. Current events of national and international importance- This is a “nuclear bomb”, it can include anything from current affairs related to tribals and areas around it. In last few years, UPSC has even asked to match pairs of tribes and their location. So be careful not to miss it.

#2. Relevance / expected questions

IAS Prelims – Match the pairs of different tribal revolts, their leaders & reasons

IAS Mains – Reasons for revolts, reasons for failure of revolts etc

Examples –

1. The tribal (or peasant) revolts failed to achieve much. Analyse
2. Tribal revolts were not in the nature of freedom struggle but were localised and context specific. Comment.

#3. What is an aspirant exactly supposed to do?

1. First read it all and understand the context. This gives a clear idea of why it all happened?
2. Then revisit it frequently (but give less time) => this makes for faster revision and helps in memorisation.

So, focus here – Get the context and remember the facts

#4. Useful resources

1. India’s Struggle for Independence by Bipin Chandra
2. India Since Independence by Bipin Chandra
3. CD’s existing stories on latest developments on Tribal affairs –
   • The Hidden India: Our Tribal Culture
   • Indian Tribals: Issues and Concern
   • Ministry of Tribal Affairs : Important Updates
4. Along with this, we are starting a series of sequential posts on as a follow up to this article to help you plug your learning gaps

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More in this series:

• Tribal Issues | Part 1 | Pre Independence conditions
• Tribal Development in 2015 | Part – 1
• Internal Security | Assam Riots and Demand of Bodoland
• Internal Security | Salwa Judum 2.0
• Tribal Issues | Part 2 | Pre Independence Tribal Revolts

In this section, we will deal with the sector which seeks to empower the youth – Skills and Job Creation.

Take a look at basic statistics, which will give you a larger picture about govt.’s approach towards Education, Skills and Job Creation, where the emphasis is to make India a knowledge based and productive society:

• 1500 Multi-skill training institutes to be set up
• Objective to skill 1 crore youth in the next 3 years under the PM Kaushal Vikas Yojna
• National Skill Development Mission has imparted training to 76 lakh youth

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Focus Areas

#1. Skill India Mission

The National Skill Development Mission has created an elaborate skilling eco-system and imparted training to 76 lakh youth. Govt. will set up 1500 multi-Skill training institutes across the country, to capitalise our demographic advantage.

Govt. will further scale up Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna to skill one crore youth over the next 3 years.

Benefits: The emphasis on skill development will resonate with India’s youth seeking to improve their employability quotient.

Career Portal

Govt. had launched National Career Service in July, 2015, where 35 million jobs seekers have registered. Govt. will make 100 Model Career Centres operational by the end of 2016-17. It will also inter-link State Employment Exchanges with the National Career Service platform.

New Initiative

Certification

Govt. will set up a National Board for Skill Development Certification in partnership with the industry and academia.

Benefits: This will help formally skilled youth to be recognised for employment purposes in public & private sector.

Massive Open Online Courses

Entrepreneurship education and training will be provided in 2200 colleges, 300 schools, 500 govt ITIs and 50 vocational training centres through Massive Open Online Courses. Govt. will make efforts to connect aspiring entrepreneurs, particularly those from remote parts of the country, to mentors and credit markets.

Job Creation

Govt of India will pay the Employee Pension Scheme contribution of 8.33% for all new employees drawing a salary of up to Rs.15,000 a month and enrolling in EPFO, for the first 3 years of their employment.

Govt. will amend Income Tax Act in order to broaden the scope of employment generation incentives.

Benefits: This will incentivize the employers to recruit unemployed persons and that too in the formal sector. It could also lead to migration of informal sector workers to the formal sector. Of the 470 million plus workforce in India, less than 10% are in the formal sector.

Retail Sector

In order to simplify the regulations for the retail sector, which is the largest service sector employer in the country, Govt will circulate a model Model Shops and Establishments Bill, which can be adopted by the State Govts on voluntary basis. The model bill seeks to allow small and medium shops to remain open all 7 days a week on voluntary basis. This will help in creation of new jobs in retail sector.

Challenge

• In India, only about 2.2% of workforce had received formal vocational training. Even those who had received any form of vocational training, the majority had either acquired a hereditary skill or learned on the job
• Without access to affordable and appropriate skills training, young people, particularly those leaving rural areas and small towns for big cities, will be stuck in low-wage, insecure jobs that will leave them in want or poverty
• Job creation has not kept pace with India’s demographic momentum, and in the coming days, it will pose a problem for a skilled workforce

Learn about Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana and Agency involved in Skill India. Follow our story on Skill India too.

PS: Please click on the green hyperlinked text to read more about the concepts. Revise and revise & feel free to ask pertinent questions.

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Published with inputs from Pushpendra | Image: Finmin

What shld be the strtgy for Hindi Medium Aspirants…??

In this section, we will deal with the sector which will determine how well we use our demographic dividend – Education Sector.

Take a look at basic statistics, which will give you a larger picture about govt.’s approach towards Education, Skills and Job Creation, where the emphasis is to make India a knowledge based and productive society:

• Allocation for education sector – Rs 68,968 cr
• Higher Education Financing Agency to be set-up with initial capital base of Rs 1000 Crores
• Digital Depository to be set-up for certificates, mark sheets, etc
• Initiative to make world-class teaching and research institutions

Focus Areas

#1. School Education 

Govt. will allocate increasing share for quality improvement under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. 62 new Navodaya Vidyalayas will be opened in the remaining uncovered districts over the next two years

#2. Higher Education

Govt. will ensure an enabling regulatory architecture to empower 10 public and 10 private institutions to emerge as world-class Teaching and Research Institutions. This will enhance affordable access to high quality education for ordinary Indians.

Benefits: Govt. seeks to stress on the importance of teaching along with recognising the role of private sector in the education sector – not all world-class institutions that emerge from India need to be publicly funded.

Read more about The State Of Affairs In Higher Education

New Initiative

Finance

Govt. will setup a Higher Education Financing Agency with an initial capital base of Rs. 1,000 crores. It will be a not-for-profit organisation that will leverage funds from the market and supplement them with donations and CSR funds. These funds will be used to finance improvement in infrastructure in the top institutions.

According to ministry of corporate affairs, education and skill development attracted 23% of the CSR spending for FY15.

Benefits: Since Banks are finding it difficult to manage the NPAs from the education loans, a dedicated agency would give the much needed thrust.

Digital Depository

Govt. will establish a Digital Depository for School Leaving Certificates, College Degrees, Academic Awards and Mark sheets, on the pattern of a Securities Depository. This will help validate authenticity, safe storage and easy retrieval of these documents.

Read more about Digital India Initiatives

Criticism

• There is little to offer in terms of any concrete steps to improve the quality of elementary education
• Teachers training does not figure in this year’s budget
• The whole purpose of CSR is defeated if the govt lays down the agenda on what the priority areas for companies should be. It also shifts the accountability for CSR from the company to the govt
• It seems that the Rs.1000 crore fund will be mostly used for redressal of the problems of students seeking educational loan. Also, the current outstanding educational loans are around Rs.50,000 crore, how a fund of Rs.1,000 crore will resolve the massive requirements of educational loans

Future

There is group of secretaries proposal to phase out Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan as it currently exists and replace it with an outcome-based financing program that links 20% of the education budget to performance on outcomes

Read more about Ministry of Human Resource Development : Important Updates

PS: Please click on the green hyperlinked text to read more about the concepts. Revise and revise & feel free to ask pertinent questions.

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Published with inputs from Pushpendra | Image: Finmin

India has no concept of Dual citizenship.We have a madhyammarg approach of OCI.
Now,if we don’t recognize Dual Citizenship then how some foreign nationals,ethnically Indians are having citizenship of 2 countries like Ind and US,India and UK etc?

In JNU case,if central government involuntarily deprives some accusses of their citizenship of India on the basis that by speech they have shown himself disloyal towards constitution of India.
Then can we run sedition case on them thereafter?