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  • Gender-Responsive Budgeting: How Well Does This Year’s Budget Address Women’s Needs

    NOTE4STUDENTS:

    UPSC often frames questions on women empowerment by linking it to budgeting, government policies, and economic participation. This article breaks down gender budgeting and explains how the 2025-26 Union Budget aims to make India’s growth more inclusive for women. Many  struggle with connecting static knowledge (concepts like gender budgeting) with current affairs (recent budget allocations). Others miss the big picture—why gender budgeting matters and how it impacts women’s participation in the workforce, entrepreneurship, and agriculture. This article is a one-stop guide to understand – Why gender budgeting is needed, How the 2025-26 budget addresses these issues, Key government initiatives and their impact and the way forward.

    PYQ ANCHORING:

    GS 3: Women empowerment in India needs gender budgeting. What are the require ments and status of gender budgeting in the Indian context? [2016]

    MICROTHEMES: Gender Budgeting

    The Union Budget 2025-26 focuses on inclusive development, prioritizing the needs of the poor, youth, farmers, and women.

    Big Boost for Women’s Welfare

    • The gender budget has been increased to 8.8% of the total Budget, up from 6.8% last year—the highest allocation in 20 years.
    • A total of ₹4.49 lakh crore has been set aside across 49 Union Ministries and departments to support women-centric programs.
    • 12 new Ministries, including railways, ports, land resources, and food processing, have introduced gender budgeting, making it a government-wide initiative.
    • This move ensures that gender equality is not just the responsibility of the Ministry of Women and Child Development but a collective effort across all government departments.

    Why Gender Budgeting is Crucial to Tackle Today’s Challenges

    Gender budgeting is essential to ensure that government spending actively supports women’s economic participation and empowerment. Here’s why:

    1. More Women Are Joining the Workforce, But Challenges Remain

    • Women’s participation in India’s workforce has grown from 33% in 2021-22 to 42% in 2023-24—a big step forward.
    • We’re getting closer to the global average of 47%, but there’s still a huge gap compared to men’s 79% participation rate.
    • To achieve the goal of 70% women’s participation by 2047, significant investments are needed in skilling, employment, entrepreneurship, and social security.

    2. Government Schemes Are Helping, But Need More Support

    The Budget has increased funding for key programs that empower women, including:

    • Skill India Programme & Entrepreneurship Development – Helping women upskill and start businesses.
    • National Rural Livelihoods Mission & MGNREGS – Providing job opportunities, especially in rural areas.
    • PM Vishwakarma & Krishonnati Yojana – Encouraging women’s participation in traditional crafts and agriculture.
    • New Schemes like Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana and first-time entrepreneurs’ schemes further boost opportunities.

    3. Addressing Job Security for Women in the Informal Sector

    • 90% of working women in India are in the informal sector, lacking job security and benefits.
    • The Budget aims to formalize gig workers through identity cards and registration on the e-Shram portal, giving them access to social security and financial benefits.

    4. Using AI and Technology for Women’s Empowerment

    • The government has allocated ₹600 crore under the India AI Mission to invest in AI-driven education and skill training for women.
    • This ensures women are ready for new-age digital jobs and can thrive in a technology-driven world.

    5. Supporting Women in Business and Agriculture

    • Women own 20.5% of MSMEs in India, employing 27 million people.
    • Expanding women-owned businesses could create up to 170 million jobs, a huge boost to India’s economy.
    • Financial institutions need to recognize and support women entrepreneurs and farmers, as they play crucial roles in driving economic growth.

    Bottom Line: Gender budgeting ensures that women get the right skills, jobs, security, and business opportunities—making India’s economic growth truly inclusive and sustainable.

    Way Forward

    • For Women Farmers: The government is making it easier for women in agriculture to get loans by removing complex paperwork. For example, Kisan Credit Cards will no longer be tied to land ownership, so women farmers can access credit more easily to boost their crop yields, productivity, and farm expansion.
    • For Women Entrepreneurs: More women-led businesses can thrive with easier access to finance through collateral-free loans, alternative credit checks, and financial literacy programs. This will help them grow their businesses and contribute to the economy.
    • Tracking Progress: To ensure these schemes are actually benefiting women, the government will track how many women are using them through gender-specific data. This will help improve policies and ensure better financial and social security support for women.

    #BACK2BASICS : Gender Budgeting: Definition, Evolution in India, and Components

    What is Gender Budgeting?

    Gender budgeting is a strategy to ensure that government budgets address gender equality by allocating funds to programs that benefit women and bridge gender gaps. It is not a separate budget but a way to analyze and restructure financial planning to promote gender-sensitive policies.

    Evolution of Gender Budgeting in India

    YearMilestoneKey Developments
    2000-01Introduction of Gender BudgetingThe National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP) first conducted a study on gender budgeting in India.
    2004-05Gender Budget Statement (GBS) IntroducedThe Union Budget introduced a Gender Budget Statement (GBS) to track government spending on women-specific programs.
    2005Formation of Gender Budgeting Cells (GBCs)The Ministry of Finance directed all ministries to establish Gender Budgeting Cells (GBCs) to monitor gender-based allocations.
    2010-11Expansion to More Ministries56 Union Ministries and Departments started reporting their gender allocations in the GBS.
    2020-21Focus on Women’s Economic EmpowermentIncreased focus on women in the workforce, skilling programs, and financial inclusion in line with the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
    2025-26Highest Gender Budget AllocationGender budget increased to 8.8% of total budget, covering 49 ministries and 12 new sectors like railways, ports, and land resources.

    Components of Gender Budgeting with Examples

    ComponentDescriptionExamples from India
    Women-Specific ProgramsSchemes designed exclusively for women to improve their social, economic, and political participation.– Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (girls’ education)
    – Mahila Samman Savings Certificate (financial security for women)
    Pro-Women Components in General ProgramsLarge-scale government schemes with a specific portion allocated for women.– MGNREGS (ensuring one-third participation of women in rural jobs)
    – PM Awas Yojana (home ownership priority for women)
    Capacity Building & Skill DevelopmentPrograms focusing on education, employment, and leadership training for women.– Skill India Programme (vocational training for women)
    – DAY-NRLM (self-help groups for rural women)
    Financial Inclusion & Credit SupportMaking finance accessible for women entrepreneurs and farmers through loans and subsidies.– Mudra Yojana (collateral-free loans for women-led businesses)
    – Kisan Credit Card (KCC) for Women Farmers (simplified loan access)
    Gender Data & MonitoringTracking how government programs impact women using gender-disaggregated data.– Gender Budget Statement (GBS)
    – E-Shram Portal (tracking informal women workers)

  • [7th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Women in corporate leadership, the lived reality

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (UPSC CSE 2019)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space (2019) and middle-class working women in India (2019).

    Recently, the world celebrated International Women’s Day, with companies highlighting their efforts toward including more women in the workforce. However, the reality is different. The rollback of DEI programs in the U.S. threatens women’s participation in corporate America, where they make up 48% of the workforce, raising concerns about identity erasure.

    Today’s editorial talks about issues faced by women. This content is useful for writing answers in GS Paper 1 and GS Paper 2 of the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    International Women’s Day will be celebrated worldwide on March 8, 2025.

    What challenges do women face in entering and advancing in the corporate workforce?

    • Gender Bias and Stereotyping: Women often face assumptions that they are less competent or less committed due to gender-based stereotypes. Example: A 2023 McKinsey report found that women are 18% less likely to be promoted from entry-level to managerial roles compared to men, despite similar qualifications.
    • Glass Ceiling Effect: Systemic barriers prevent women from advancing to senior leadership and executive positions. Example: As of 2023, only 8% of CEOs in Fortune 500 companies were women, reflecting limited upward mobility for women in corporate hierarchies.
    • Work-Life Balance and Caregiving Responsibilities: Women are disproportionately responsible for family and household duties, making it harder to manage demanding corporate roles. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, 1 in 4 women considered downshifting or leaving their jobs due to increased caregiving burdens.
    • Unequal Pay and Compensation Disparities: Women consistently earn less than their male counterparts for performing similar work. Example: In India, the gender pay gap remains around 19%, with women earning significantly less than men for equivalent roles (Monster Salary Index Report, 2022).
    • Lack of Mentorship and Sponsorship: Women often lack access to influential mentors who can advocate for their promotion and career growth. Example: A Harvard Business Review study (2021) revealed that 64% of women reported not having a senior leader to sponsor their career advancement, limiting their growth opportunities.

    Why are legal mandates like the Companies Act, 2013, and SEBI regulations crucial for increasing women’s representation in corporate leadership?

    • Ensuring Minimum Representation: Legal mandates create a compulsory framework requiring companies to appoint women to leadership positions, ensuring basic gender diversity. Example: The Companies Act, 2013 mandates at least one woman director on the board of certain public companies, increasing female representation in leadership roles.
    • Driving Structural Change: Regulations push companies to institutionalize policies that promote gender diversity, fostering long-term cultural and organizational transformation. Example: SEBI’s 2015 directive for India’s top 1,000 listed companies to have at least one independent woman director has led to a threefold increase in women’s participation on NSE 500 boards (from 5% in 2011 to 18% in 2023).
    • Reducing Gender Bias: Legal mandates act as a corrective mechanism against gender-based discrimination by ensuring that women receive leadership opportunities based on merit. Example: Following SEBI’s mandate, companies actively seek to identify and groom qualified women for board positions, reducing biases in corporate hiring practices.
    • Enhancing Corporate Governance: Women in leadership roles bring diverse perspectives that strengthen decision-making, risk management, and accountability. Example: Research by Credit Suisse (2021) found that companies with at least one woman board member show better financial performance and stronger governance frameworks.
    • Setting Industry Benchmarks: Legal frameworks establish a baseline for gender inclusion, encouraging other companies and sectors to adopt similar diversity policies. Example: The Companies Act and SEBI regulations have inspired several Indian private firms to adopt voluntary policies promoting gender-balanced leadership, creating a ripple effect across industries.

    How does the presence of women in leadership roles benefit corporate governance?

    • Diverse Perspectives and Better Decision-Making: Women leaders bring varied experiences and viewpoints, leading to more comprehensive discussions and well-rounded decisions. Example: A Harvard Business Review (2021) study found that boards with at least 30% women make better strategic decisions and are more likely to consider stakeholder interests.
    • Enhanced Risk Management: Women leaders tend to adopt a more cautious and analytical approach, improving risk assessment and mitigation strategies. Example: A 2019 MSCI report showed that companies with three or more women on their boards experienced lower risk of governance-related controversies and better compliance practices.
    • Improved Corporate Transparency and Accountability: Women in leadership roles advocate for ethical practices, ensuring greater transparency and stronger corporate governance frameworks. Example: In Norway, where a 40% quota for women on corporate boards exists, studies have shown increased reporting standards and improved financial disclosures.
    • Stronger Stakeholder Engagement: Women leaders prioritize relationship-building and stakeholder communication, fostering trust and long-term value creation. Example: Indian companies with women independent directors are more likely to engage with diverse stakeholders and prioritize corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives (SEBI Report, 2023).
    • Higher Corporate Performance and Reputation: Companies with gender-diverse leadership are often recognized as more ethical, responsible, and attractive to investors. Example: A Credit Suisse (2021) analysis found that companies with at least one woman on their board had higher return on equity (ROE) and better market performance over a five-year period.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • Legislative Mandates for Board Diversity: The Companies Act, 2013 mandates that certain public companies must appoint at least one woman director on their boards.
    • SEBI Regulations for Independent Women Directors: In 2015, SEBI mandated India’s top 1,000 listed companies have at least one independent woman director to ensure greater gender diversity in decision-making roles.
    • Gender-Specific Schemes and Incentives: Programs like Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) and MUDRA Yojana provide financial support and capacity-building to encourage women’s participation in corporate and entrepreneurial spaces.
    • Awareness and Capacity-Building Initiatives: The National Commission for Women (NCW) conducts training programs to prepare women for leadership roles and works to address workplace discrimination and harassment under the POSH Act, 2013.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Policy Implementation and Accountability: Ensure strict enforcement of existing legal mandates (e.g., Companies Act, 2013 and SEBI regulations) with regular audits and penalties for non-compliance. Example: Introduce progressive targets for gender diversity, such as mandating at least 30% women in leadership roles by a specified timeline.
    • Promoting Inclusive Workplace Culture and Leadership Development: Implement gender-sensitive policies like flexible work arrangements, parental leave, and on-site childcare to support work-life balance. Example: Establish mentorship and sponsorship programs targeting women, ensuring equal access to leadership pipelines and executive training.

  • The academic link between Nepal and India

    Why in the News?

    On February 16, a third-year female student from Nepal died by suicide at Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) in Bhubaneswar.

    What were the reasons behind the protests by Nepali students at KIIT, Bhubaneswar?

    • Harassment and University Inaction: Nepali students protested after a third-year Nepali woman student died by suicide, allegedly due to harassment by a male student. Despite multiple complaints, the university failed to take action. Example: The deceased student had repeatedly reported the harassment to university authorities, but no substantial steps were taken to address her concerns.
    • Forced Campus Eviction: KIIT ordered Nepali students to vacate the campus following the protests, which was viewed as an unjust punishment against the entire community. Example: Instead of addressing the harassment claims, the university’s eviction order further alienated Nepali students, leading to greater unrest.
    • Demand for Justice and Fair Treatment: Students sought accountability for the harassment and fair treatment under the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty of 1950, which ensures equal rights for Nepali citizens in India. Example: Protesters argued that the eviction violated Articles 6 and 7 of the treaty, which guarantee the right to residence and fair treatment.

    Why is Nepal’s education system being influenced by the colonial legacy of British India?

    • Affiliation with Indian Universities: Nepal’s first college, Tri-Chandra College (established in 1918), was affiliated with Indian universities (Calcutta and later Patna University), controlling courses, pedagogy, and examinations.
    • Dependence on Indian Instructors: Early instructors in Nepal’s education system were trained in Indian universities, leading to the adoption of Indian academic frameworks.
    • Limited Domestic Higher Education: Until Tribhuvan University was established in 1959, Nepal lacked postgraduate education, forcing students to seek higher education in India.
    • Colonial Curriculum: The content of education remained heavily influenced by British India’s system, limiting the development of Nepal-centric academic discourse.
    • Post-1950 Reforms: Efforts like the National Educational Planning Commission (1954) and New Education System Plan (1971) aimed to “Nepalise” the system, yet the intellectual field continued to be shaped by Indian education.

    In what way is the KIIT incident linked to the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty of 1950, especially Articles 6 and 7?

    • Violation of Equal Treatment (Article 6): Article 6 of the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty ensures that citizens of Nepal and India receive “national treatment” in each other’s territories. The directive for Nepali students to vacate the KIIT campus violated this provision by treating them differently based on their nationality.
    • Infringement on the Right to Residence (Article 7): Article 7 grants Nepali citizens the right to reside in India without discrimination. KIIT’s order to vacate the premises directly infringed on this right, as it targeted Nepali students exclusively.
    • Impact on Educational Access (Article 7): The Treaty allows Nepali citizens to pursue education in India without barriers. The disruption of academic activities and the evacuation order restricted their educational access, breaching this provision.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Institutional Accountability: Ensure universities establish robust grievance redressal mechanisms to address harassment complaints promptly and impartially. Independent inquiry committees should be set up to investigate incidents, ensuring transparency and justice.
    • Upholding Treaty Commitments: Indian institutions must align their policies with the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty, guaranteeing equal treatment and the right to residence for Nepali students. Regular dialogue between Indian and Nepali authorities can help prevent future violations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)

  • Is Artificial Intelligence affecting critical thinking skills?

    Why in the News?

    Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools are being used more and more in classrooms worldwide.In India, a study by TeamLease EdTech last year found that over 61% of educators are using AI tools.

    What are the key findings as per the TeamLease EdTech?

    A study by TeamLease EdTech titled “Revolutionising Classrooms: The Impact of Generative AI on the Future of Education” surveyed over 6,000 educators across India, including school teachers and university professors. 

    • Widespread Adoption of AI Tools: Approximately 61.60% of educators are utilizing AI tools for teaching, preparation, and student engagement.
    • Recognition of AI’s Transformative Potential: Around 64.87% of educators acknowledge that AI has the potential to transform learning experiences and personalize education.
    • Preparation for an AI-Dominated Future: About 63.61% of educators believe that integrating AI is crucial for preparing students for a future where AI is prevalent.
    • Advocacy for AI Regulation: A significant 87.85% of educators support government regulation and monitoring of AI development and application to address ethical implications.
    • Need for Teacher Training in AI: Approximately 54.92% of educators express the need for AI training to ensure teachers are prepared for AI integration in education.

    What are the key concerns regarding the use of AI in education?

    • Over-Reliance on AI and Reduced Critical Thinking: Students may become dependent on AI-generated responses, leading to a decline in their ability to critically analyze information. Example: If students use AI tools like ChatGPT for essay writing without verification, they may accept biased or inaccurate information without questioning it.
    • Ethical and Privacy Issues: AI tools collect and store user data, raising questions about the privacy and security of sensitive academic information. Example: Using AI-powered platforms without adequate security may expose student data to third parties, violating privacy regulations like GDPR.
    • Unequal Access and Digital Divide: Not all students and institutions have equal access to advanced AI tools, widening the educational inequality gap. Example: Rural schools with limited technological infrastructure may struggle to implement AI-based learning.

    Why is it important for educational institutions to develop their own AI usage policies?

    • Ensuring Ethical and Responsible AI Use: Clear policies guide the ethical use of AI, preventing misuse, plagiarism, and data breaches. Example: A university policy on AI-assisted research can outline acceptable use, ensuring students disclose AI-generated content in academic work.
    • Protecting Student Privacy and Data Security: Policies help safeguard sensitive student information and comply with legal standards like GDPR or India’s DPDP Act. Example: Schools can restrict AI tools from accessing personal data by enforcing guidelines on how and when these technologies are used.
    • Maintaining Academic Integrity and Fair Assessment: AI policies uphold the integrity of learning by defining appropriate AI use in assignments and assessments. Example: A school policy may allow AI for research assistance but prohibit its use in writing final exam essays to ensure fair evaluation.

    When should AI tools be integrated into the curriculum? 

    • When Enhancing Personalized Learning: AI tools should be introduced when they can tailor educational content to individual student needs, improving learning outcomes. Example: Adaptive learning platforms like Khan Academy or Duolingo can adjust the difficulty of lessons based on a student’s progress, offering personalized learning paths.
    • When Supporting Skill Development for the Future: AI should be integrated when it helps students develop critical skills like data analysis, problem-solving, and digital literacy, which are essential for future careers. Example: Teaching AI programming using platforms like TensorFlow or Scratch can prepare students for careers in technology and data science.
    • When Facilitating Innovative Teaching Methods: AI tools should be included when they enhance creative and interactive teaching approaches that traditional methods cannot achieve. Example: Virtual labs using AI simulations in subjects like biology or physics allow students to conduct experiments safely and repeatedly, improving comprehension.

    How can educators balance the use of AI while fostering critical thinking and analytical skills in students?

    • Aligning AI Tools with Specific Learning Outcomes: AI should be used when it directly supports and enhances the achievement of clearly defined educational goals. Example: If the objective is to improve analytical reasoning, AI-powered data visualization tools like Tableau can help students interpret complex datasets and draw meaningful insights.
    • Enhancing Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills: AI should be integrated when it fosters deeper learning by encouraging inquiry, creativity, and solution-oriented thinking. Example: AI-driven coding platforms like Scratch or Python Tutor can promote computational thinking and logical reasoning through hands-on programming tasks.
    • Supporting Assessment and Feedback Mechanisms: AI should be used to provide timely, personalized feedback that aligns with the learning objectives and helps track student progress. Example: Automated grading systems like Grammarly or Turnitin can assist in assessing writing skills and offer constructive feedback to improve academic writing.

    Way forward: 

    • Develop Comprehensive AI Literacy Programs: Equip educators and students with the skills to critically evaluate AI outputs, ensuring responsible and informed use.
    • Establish Clear, Adaptive AI Governance Frameworks: Implement dynamic policies that balance innovation with ethical standards, ensuring equitable access and academic integrity.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)

  • Successful PHTA Test of ISRO’s Semi-Cryogenic Engine

    Why in the News?

    ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.

    About the SE2000 Engine

    • The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
    • It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
    • The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
    • Key features of the SE2000 engine:
      • Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
      • Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
      • Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
      • Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
    • The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
    • Applications of the SE2000 engine:
      • Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
      • Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
      • Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.

    What is the PHTA Test?

    • The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
    • It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
    • Purpose of the PHTA test:
      • Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
      • Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
      • Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
    • A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.

    Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines

    • A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
    • Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
    • Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
    • Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 2

    (d) 3 only

     

  • UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    Why in the News?

    In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

    It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

    About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    • The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
    • The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
    • COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
    • Historical Context:
      • Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
      • Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
    • Subcommittees:
      • Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
      • Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

    Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

    • COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:
    1. Outer Space Treaty (1967):  Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
    2. Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
    3. Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
    4. Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
    5. Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

    Defining Space Debris in Law

    • Space debris has no universally accepted legal definition in international treaties.
    • The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) defines it as non-functional man-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere.
    • Legal disputes arise over whether a piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Liability Convention.

    Liability Under International Space Law

    • Outer Space Treaty (1967), Article VI: States bear responsibility for national space activities, including those by private companies.
    • Liability Convention (1972): Introduced “absolute liability”, meaning launching states are automatically responsible for damage caused by space objects.
      • However, liability enforcement remains weak, and affected nations often struggle to claim full compensation.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat.

     

  • Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

    Why in the News?

    Recently, Colossal Biosciences has created a “Woolly Mouse” by editing seven genes in mice embryos to mimic the cold-adaptive traits of woolly mammoths.

    What are Woolly Mammoths?

    • The Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was a large, Ice Age herbivore that roamed Eurasia and North America, thriving in cold tundra environments.
    • It had a thick woolly coat, a fat layer for insulation, and small ears to minimize heat loss.
    • Mammoths lived in herds and primarily fed on grasses and shrubs.
    • They went extinct around 4,000 years ago, likely due to climate change, habitat loss, and human hunting.
    • Scientists believe reviving mammoth-like elephants could help restore Arctic ecosystems and slow permafrost thawing.

    Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

    About Woolly Mice

    • The Woolly Mouse is a genetically modified laboratory mouse developed by Colossal Biosciences to test their de-extinction research.
    • Scientists successfully edited seven genes, resulting in mice with thick, woolly fur, mimicking the coat of a woolly mammoth.
    • Key Features of Woolly Mice:
      • Genetically engineered for cold-resistant traits using DNA modifications.
      • Long, thick, wavy fur and curled whiskers, resembling mammoth adaptations.
      • Created by combining multiple genetic variants into a single organism.
      • Serves as a model organism to test gene-editing techniques before applying them to Asian elephants, the closest living relatives of woolly mammoths.

    Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:

    • The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to precisely modify DNA.
    • Scientists identified genes responsible for fur texture, length, and body fat metabolism, allowing them to engineer cold-resistant traits.
    • Scientists edited seven genes simultaneously, an unprecedented feat in genetic engineering.
    • Key genes modified included:
      • FGF5:  regulates hair growth, making it longer and thicker.
      • MC1R: controls hair color, giving the mice a golden hue similar to mammoth fur.
      • Hair follicle structure genes: induced woolly hair texture, wavy coats, and curled whiskers.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred:

    1. across different species of plants

    2. from animals to plants

    3. from microorganisms to higher organisms

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • J&K to promote Bangus Valley near LoC for Ecotourism

    Why in the News?

    The Jammu and Kashmir government has announced new ecotourism policies for Bangus Valley, a scenic yet lesser-known destination near the Line of Control (LoC) in North Kashmir.

    J&K to promote Bangus Valley near LoC for Ecotourism

    About Bangus Valley

    • It is situated in Kupwara district, Jammu & Kashmir, about 100 km from Srinagar in the Pir Panjal range, close to the Line of Control (LoC).
    • It consists of 2 valleys:
      • Boud Bangus (Big Bangus): ~300 sq km, surrounded by Rajwar, Mawar, and Shamasbury ranges.
      • Lokut Bangus (Small Bangus): A smaller valley northeast of Big Bangus, known for trekking routes.
    • Its name is derived from Sanskrit words “Van” (forest) and “Gus” (grass), meaning “Forest of Grass.”
    • Connectivity:
      • Handwara via Reshwari Mawer (shortest and most preferred route).
      • Handwara via Rajwar (trekking route).
      • Kupwara via Chowkibal (under development, expected completion by 2025).
      • Road connectivity via Handwara is complete (June 2022).

    Ecological Importance of Bangus Valley:

    • Biodiversity: Home to 50+ animal species and 10+ bird species.
    • Key Mammals: Musk deer, antelope, snow leopard, brown bear, black bear, red fox, monkeys.
    • Bird Species: Tragopan, monal pheasant, black partridge, bush quail, wild fowl.
    • Flora: Rich in medicinal plants and wildflowers, supporting traditional herbal medicine.
    • Water Conservation: 14 tributaries, including Roshan Kul, Tillwan Kul, Douda Kul, feed the Pohru River.
    • Climate Sensitivity: Threatened by glacial melt and changing precipitation patterns.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Siachen Glacier is situated to the:

    (a) East of Aksai Chin

    (b) East of Leh

    (c) North of Gilgit

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

     

  • Death Penalty in India: A Necessary Deterrent or a Human Rights Concern?

    PYQ ANCHORING

    GS 2 : “The Constitution of India is a living instrument with capabilities of enormous dynamism. It is a constitution made for a progressive society”. Illustrate with special reference to the expanding horizons of the right to life and personal liberty. [2023]

    GS 2 : Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protect ed under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity. [2024]

    MICROTHEMES: Fundamental Rights

    The recent conviction of Sanjay Roy for the rape and murder of doctor at Kolkata’s R G Kar Medical College and Hospital has sparked widespread public outrage. While the court sentenced Roy to life imprisonment, many are demanding the death penalty.

    Death Penalty Status in India

    1. Expansion Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)

    • India continues to use the death penalty, and its scope has expanded under the new Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023.
    • The number of offenses punishable by death has increased from 12 to 18 under the new criminal law.

    2. Death Sentences in 2023

    • In 2023, most death sentences (64 cases) were awarded for murder involving sexual offenses.
    • There is often public demand for the death penalty in cases of sexual violence, particularly against women and children.
    • This demand is sometimes influenced by cultural and religious perceptions of justice.

    3. Justice Verma Committee Report (2013)

    • The Justice Verma Committee (2013) examined sentencing laws and made key recommendations:
      • Opposed the death penalty for rape cases, arguing that it would not effectively deter such crimes.
      • Recommended removal of the marital rape exception, recognizing it as a form of sexual violence.
    • However, the government did not implement these recommendations when amending laws in 2013.

    SC Guidelines on Death Penalty and Mercy Petitions

    1. Establishment of Dedicated Cells

    • States and union territories must establish dedicated cells within their Home or Prison Departments to handle mercy petitions efficiently and within the prescribed timeframe.
    • These cells will be managed by a designated officer, whose contact details must be shared with all prisons.
    • An official from the Law or Justice Department will oversee legal compliance.

    2. Information Sharing

    • Prison authorities must promptly forward mercy petitions and relevant details, such as:
      • Convict’s background
      • Incarceration history
      • Legal documents
      • Police reports, FIRs, trial evidence, and court judgments
    • The Home Department Secretary and the dedicated cell officer must receive these documents.
    • Mercy petitions must be sent without unnecessary delays to the Secretariats of the Governor or President for further action.

    3. Electronic Communication

    • To enhance efficiency, all communication should be conducted electronically (via email) except in cases requiring confidentiality.

    4. Record Maintenance on Death Sentence Cases

    • Sessions Courts must maintain records of death sentence cases and ensure their prompt listing in the cause list upon receiving orders from the High Court or Supreme Court.
    • Notices must be issued to State Public Prosecutors or investigation agencies to ascertain the status of any pending legal remedies, including:
      • Appeals
      • Review petitions
      • Mercy pleas

    5. Execution Warrant Protocol

    • There must be a mandatory 15-day gap between the issuance of an execution warrant and its implementation.
    • Convicts must be informed of their right to legal representation, and copies of the warrant and the issuing order must be provided immediately.
    • Legal assistance must be provided promptly if the convict requests to challenge the warrant.

    6. State Government Responsibility

    • The State Government must apply for an execution warrant as soon as the death penalty becomes final and enforceable.

    THE TWO SIDES OF ARGUMENTS

    ArgumentsIn Favor of Death PenaltyAgainst Death Penalty
    RetributionSeen as just retribution for murderers.Violates the right to life guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.
    UtilitarianismConveys that the societal welfare outweighs the deprivation of life of the criminal.Life imprisonment offers a chance for rehabilitation, which the death penalty does not.
    DeterrenceServes as a deterrence to potential offenders.Studies show the death penalty has no significant deterrent effect; global opinion favors abolition.
    Public SafetySafeguards the public against the possibility of release of a murderer.Innocent individuals could be executed, especially by special or military courts under counter-terrorism laws.
    HumanenessConsidered the least common and not harsh or inhumane method of execution.State-sanctioned executions must be as comfortable and painless as possible, per the Indian Constitution.
    Discrimination—Report indicates around 76% of death row convicts belong to lower and backward castes, suggesting discriminatory practices.

    Way Forward: A More Just and Humane Approach

    1. Ensuring Fair Sentencing

    The Supreme Court has emphasized the need for a uniform and thoughtful approach when sentencing individuals to death. Before imposing the ultimate punishment, courts should examine all possible alternatives, ensuring justice is not rushed but carefully considered.

    2. Following Supreme Court Guidelines

    Lower courts must strictly follow the Supreme Court’s ruling in Manoj and Ors. vs State of Madhya Pradesh (2022). This ensures that those facing the death penalty receive a fair, humane, and well-informed hearing.

    3. Rethinking the Death Penalty

    The Law Commission of India (2015) recommended abolishing the death penalty, except in terror-related cases. With over 144 countries having abolished capital punishment in law or practice, India too must reflect on its global and moral standing on this issue.

    4. Addressing Social Inequality

    The justice system must acknowledge the structural discrimination that disproportionately affects marginalized communities. A 2016 study revealed that 76% of death row prisoners belonged to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, or religious minorities. Reform must ensure that justice is not biased against the vulnerable.

    5. Reforming Outdated Laws

    India has taken steps to modernize its criminal laws by replacing colonial-era legislation with the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, and Bharatiya Sakshya Bill. These reforms should focus on protecting constitutional rights and ensuring that the justice system prioritizes fairness over retribution.

    #BACK2BASICS : CONSTITUTIONAL VALIDITY OF DEATH PENALTY

    Judicial Evolution

    The Supreme Court of India has upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty, emphasizing its application in the “rarest of rare” cases to prevent its arbitrary use.

    Case Name & YearKey IssueJudgmentSignificance
    Jagmohan Singh v. State of U.P. (1973)Whether the death penalty violates Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Indian ConstitutionSupreme Court upheld the death penalty, ruling that it does not violate fundamental rights as long as it is imposed through a fair, just, and reasonable procedureEstablished that capital punishment is constitutional if proper legal procedures are followed
    Rajendra Prasad v. State of U.P. (1979)Consideration of social justice and reformation in death penalty sentencingCourt emphasized that the death penalty should be awarded only when the crime demonstrates extreme depravity and there is no possibility of reformationShifted focus toward reformative justice and suggested restricting capital punishment
    Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab (1980)Whether the death penalty is unconstitutional under Article 21Court upheld the death penalty but introduced the “rarest of rare” doctrine, stating that it should only be imposed when no other alternative is viableEstablished the “rarest of rare” doctrine, which remains the standard for awarding capital punishment in India
    Machhi Singh v. State of Punjab (1983)Clarification of “rarest of rare” casesCourt listed five categories where the death penalty may be justified, including the manner of commission, motive, magnitude, personality of the victim, and impact on societyProvided further clarity on when the death penalty should be applied
    Mithu v. State of Punjab (1983)Challenge to mandatory death sentence under Section 303 of IPCCourt struck down Section 303 IPC, ruling that a mandatory death penalty violates Article 21Reinforced that discretion is necessary in sentencing and that blanket mandatory death sentences are unconstitutional
    Deena v. Union of India (1983)Whether the method of execution (hanging) violates Article 21Supreme Court upheld hanging as a constitutional method, stating that it is not inhumaneConfirmed that execution by hanging is a legally valid method in India
    Triveni Ben v. State of Gujarat (1989)Delay in execution and its impact on human rightsSupreme Court held that prolonged delay in execution amounts to inhuman treatment and violates Article 21Established that unnecessary delays in carrying out the death penalty can make it unconstitutional
    Dhananjoy Chatterjee v. State of W.B. (1994)Application of the death penalty in cases of heinous crimesCourt upheld the death penalty, stating that it serves as a deterrent for heinous crimes like rape and murderReinforced that capital punishment is justified in cases where the crime shakes societal conscience
    Shatrughan Chauhan v. Union of India (2014)Rights of death row convicts in cases of delaySupreme Court ruled that undue delay in executing a death sentence is a valid ground for commutation to life imprisonmentStrengthened safeguards for death row convicts by allowing them to seek relief in case of delays
    Mukesh & Anr. v. State (Nirbhaya Case) (2017)Whether the death penalty is appropriate for brutal rape and murder casesSupreme Court upheld the death sentence for the accused, citing the brutality of the crime and its impact on societyReaffirmed the “rarest of rare” doctrine and its application in heinous crimes

    Law Commission Reports

    The Law Commission of India has examined the death penalty in various reports:

    • 35th Report: Recommended retention of the death penalty, citing India’s unique circumstances.
    • 187th Report: Focused on the mode of execution, suggesting a more humane approach.
    • 262nd Report: Advocated for the abolition of the death penalty for non-terrorism-related offences.

  • [6th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Over-centralisation threatens federal health policy

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse. (UPSC CSE 2021)

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Welfare State, primary health structure (2021), and Public health system (2015).

    The Supreme Court’s judgment in Dr. Tanvi Behl vs Shrey Goyal (2025), striking down domicile-based reservations in post-graduate medical admissions, changes India’s medical education policy. While promoting merit, it overlooks how these reservations support State public health needs and may discourage States from investing in government medical colleges, weakening their healthcare systems.

    Today’s editorial discusses domicile-based reservations, which is useful for writing answers in UPSC Mains GS Paper 2 on Governance, especially regarding State policies and public health challenges.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The ruling that ended domicile-based reservations in post-graduate medical admissions ignores the practical challenges of managing public health.

    What are Domicile-based reservations? 

    • Domicile-based reservations are quotas in educational institutions or government jobs reserved for individuals who are permanent residents of a particular State or region. These reservations aim to address local needs, ensure regional representation, and retain skilled professionals within the State.
    • For example, in Tamil Nadu, a portion of post-graduate medical seats is reserved for candidates who have completed their medical education in the State.

    What are the key arguments made by the Supreme Court in striking down domicile-based reservations?

    • Violation of Article 14 (Right to Equality): The Court held that domicile-based reservations in post-graduate medical admissions violate Article 14 of the Constitution, which guarantees equality before the law. Example: It argued that restricting access to medical seats based on domicile status is discriminatory against equally qualified non-local candidates.
    • Primacy of Meritocracy in Higher Education: The judgment emphasized that merit should be the primary criterion for post-graduate medical admissions to ensure the best candidates receive specialist training. Example: It relied on Pradeep Jain vs Union of India (1984), where the Court discouraged domicile-based quotas, stating that such policies dilute academic standards in advanced medical training.
    • Uniform and Centralized Medical Education Framework: The Court favored a national, merit-based system to maintain uniformity in medical admissions across States and prevent fragmentation. Example: It pointed to central institutions like AIIMS and PGIMER, which follow a centralized selection process without domicile reservations, ensuring open competition for all candidates.

    Why is domicile-based reservation considered crucial for State-level?

    • Retention of Specialist Doctors in Public Health Systems: Domicile quotas ensure that medical graduates trained in State institutions are more likely to serve within the State, addressing local health-care needs. Example: States with severe specialist shortages (e.g., rural Bihar or Odisha) rely on domicile-based reservations to retain medical professionals and improve health outcomes.
    • Alignment of State Investment with Local Workforce Needs: States invest substantial resources in medical education and expect returns through a local medical workforce. Domicile quotas ensure these investments benefit the State’s health infrastructure. Example: Tamil Nadu links domicile-based quotas to mandatory public service, ensuring that doctors trained using State funds serve in government hospitals.
    • Addressing Regional Health Disparities: Domicile reservations help in reducing regional imbalances by ensuring that underserved areas have access to medical specialists who understand local challenges. Example: Northeastern States with limited access to advanced medical care use domicile quotas to maintain a local pool of doctors familiar with tribal and rural health needs.
    • Predictable Medical Workforce Supply: States depend on domicile quotas to create a steady pipeline of medical specialists who can fulfill long-term public health needs. Example: Maharashtra implements domicile-based reservations to ensure consistent recruitment for rural health centers and district hospitals.
    • Incentivizing State Investment in Medical Education: If States cannot ensure that their medical graduates remain local, they may reduce funding for medical colleges, weakening health infrastructure. Example: Without domicile quotas, smaller States like Goa risk losing locally trained doctors to other regions, discouraging future investment in medical education.

    How does the ruling impact State incentives to invest in government medical colleges and public health infrastructure?

    • Reduced Motivation to Fund Medical Education: Without domicile-based reservations, States cannot ensure that doctors trained in government-funded colleges will stay and serve locally. This may discourage future investments in medical education. Example: Odisha may be less inclined to invest in new medical colleges if graduates move to other States for better opportunities.
    • Weaker Public Health Infrastructure: States depend on locally trained doctors to staff public hospitals. Without a guaranteed local workforce, rural and underserved areas may face doctor shortages, weakening health services. Example: Bihar, already struggling with a lack of specialists, could face further shortages in district hospitals due to reduced local retention.
    • Increased Dependence on External Recruitment: The ruling forces States to rely on recruiting doctors from outside, which can be costly, inefficient, and unpredictable, especially in remote regions. Example: Himachal Pradesh may need to import specialists, increasing costs and reducing long-term staffing stability in rural clinics.
    • Discouragement of Regional Policy Innovation: States using service-linked quotas to address local health needs lose a valuable tool to customize their medical education policies. Example: Tamil Nadu’s model, which ties post-graduate seats to public service, could be undermined, reducing the State’s ability to ensure healthcare delivery.
    • Widening Regional Health Inequalities: States with fewer resources will struggle to compete with wealthier regions in attracting and retaining medical professionals, increasing healthcare gaps. Example: Northeastern States like Assam may face a brain drain, making it harder to deliver essential medical care in rural areas.

    Way forward: 

    • Balanced Policy Framework: Introduce a hybrid model combining merit-based admissions with incentives (e.g., service bonds or rural postings) to retain doctors in underserved areas while upholding constitutional equality.
    • Strengthening National and State Collaboration: Foster State-Centre cooperation to create region-specific policies under the National Medical Commission (NMC) that address local health needs without violating merit-based norms.

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