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  • [18th February 2026] The Hindu OpED: The new world disorder, from rules to might

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] “The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

    Linkage: The question directly examines India’s transition within the evolving global order, mirroring the article’s theme of shifting from a rules-based to a power-centric system. It tests understanding of multilateralism, geopolitical realignment, and legitimacy in global governance.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The post-1945 international order, built on multilateralism, sovereignty, and rule-based conduct, faces structural erosion. Major powers increasingly privilege strategic convenience over institutional commitments. This article examines the weakening of global governance frameworks and its implications for sovereignty, multilateral legitimacy, and international stability.

    Why in the News?

    The article is significant amid rising global conflicts, weakening multilateral institutions, and increasing disregard for international law by major powers. The retreat from global agreements and selective respect for sovereignty mark a shift from a rules-based order to power-based geopolitics. This transition has direct implications for global stability and India’s foreign policy.

    Introduction

    The rules-based global order, institutionalized after 1945 under the leadership of the United States and embodied in the United Nations system, aimed to restrain power through law, multilateral institutions, and collective security. The foundational belief was that sovereignty carried responsibility, and no state could claim special privilege outside international law.

    Current geopolitical developments reflect a shift from rules to power politics. The retreat from multilateral agreements, selective enforcement of norms, and normalization of coercive statecraft signal structural stress within global governance institutions.

    Has the Rules-Based International Order Lost Institutional Credibility?

    1. Multilateral Retreat: Withdrawal from international agreements weakens collective governance; e.g., U.S. exit from climate and arms-control frameworks reduced institutional predictability.
    2. Norm Erosion: Non-aggression and territorial integrity principles face selective application; example: major power interventions without UN authorization.
    3. Legitimacy Deficit: Institutions retain formal mandates but lack enforcement capacity; UN Security Council paralysis illustrates structural limits.
    4. Fragmentation: Emergence of regional power blocs reduces universality of norms; example: competing economic corridors and trade alliances.

    Does Selective Sovereignty Undermine Constitutional Principles of International Law?

    1. Sovereign Equality Principle: UN Charter guarantees equal sovereignty; selective recognition violates foundational norms.
    2. Non-Aggression Norm: Prohibits territorial acquisition by force; current conflicts challenge enforcement credibility.
    3. Rule Consistency: Law loses authority when applied variably; example: differential responses to territorial disputes.
    4. Precedent Risk: Tolerated violations create normative cascades affecting smaller states disproportionately.

    How Has Unilateralism Impacted Global Regulatory Frameworks?

    1. Arms Control Weakening: Withdrawal from arms-control treaties reduces transparency and raises escalation risks.
    2. Trade Institutional Stress: WTO dispute resolution paralysis reduces enforceability of trade norms.
    3. Climate Governance Gap: Reduced cooperation delays coordinated mitigation targets.
    4. Pandemic Coordination Failure: Vaccine nationalism exposed limits of global health governance.

    Are Multilateral Institutions Structurally Equipped to Regulate Great Power Behaviour?

    1. Power Concentration: UN Security Council veto structure centralizes authority.
    2. Enforcement Limitations: Peacekeeping mandates depend on political consensus.
    3. Resource Constraints: Financial dependency on major contributors affects autonomy.
    4. Moral Authority vs Legal Authority: Institutions rely on compliance culture rather than coercive enforcement.

    Does the Shift from Law to Power Represent a Structural Reset of Global Governance?

    1. Transition Phase: Emerging multipolarity redistributes influence among regional actors.
    2. Institutional Adaptation Gap: Post-1945 architecture reflects bipolar Cold War realities.
    3. Competing Norm Systems: Divergent governance models challenge universal liberal norms.
    4. Long-Term Risk: Gradual institutional decay may normalize “might is right” doctrine.

    Conclusion

    The post-1945 rules-based order is experiencing structural erosion due to unilateralism, selective application of norms, and weakened multilateral institutions. The risk lies not in sudden collapse but in gradual institutional hollowing. Sustaining global stability requires renewed commitment to sovereignty, rule of law, and credible multilateral reform to prevent normalization of power-centric geopolitics.

  • The 1946 Royal Navy revolt: solidarity amid sharpening polarisation

    Why in the News?

    The 80th anniversary of the 1946 Royal Indian Navy (RIN) revolt has revived debate on its scale, character, and constitutional significance. Often reduced to a “mutiny,” the uprising was in fact a mass anti-colonial mobilisation cutting across religious and class lines. The episode raises deeper questions about colonial governance failure, military discipline, political negotiation, and institutional accountability during the final phase of British rule.

    What was the RIN Revolt/Munity?

    1. The Royal Indian Navy Revolt began on 18 February 1946 at HMIS Talwar in Bombay.
    2. What started as a strike over food and racial discrimination evolved into a coordinated uprising across 78 ships and 20 shore establishments, involving nearly 20,000 naval ratings. 
    3. It spread to Karachi, Calcutta, Madras, Visakhapatnam, Cochin, and the Andaman Islands. 
    4. The revolt lasted five days but exposed structural cracks in colonial military control.

    Was the 1946 Revolt merely a mutiny or a culmination of earlier military unrest?

    1. Historical Continuity: Earlier small-scale military protests occurred during World War II, but remained localised and short-lived. Example: Isolated wartime discontent within army and naval units did not expand beyond individual establishments.
    2. Qualitative Shift: The 1946 revolt transformed from service grievance to political defiance. Example: Slogans linked food protest to nationalist demands and release of INA prisoners.
    3. Scale Expansion: Covered 78 ships and 20 shore establishments. Example: Naval units from Bombay to Karachi joined simultaneously.
    4. National Character: Spread across western, eastern and southern maritime commands. Example: Bombay (HMIS Talwar), Karachi (HMIS Hindustan), Madras and Visakhapatnam shore bases participated.
    5. “Last War of Independence” Narrative: Some historians describe it as the final armed assertion before British withdrawal in 1947.

    What Factors Triggered the 1946 Royal Indian Navy Revolt?

    1. Racial discrimination: Institutional inequality between British officers and Indian ratings generated sustained resentment within the naval hierarchy.
    2. Racist leadership: The posting of Arthur Frederick King, an officer known for overt racial bias, as Commander of HMIS Talwar deepened existing resentment and aggravated discontent among Indian sailors.
    3. Weak Grievance Redressal Mechanism: Absence of formal accountability channels escalated discontent into rebellion. Example: Hunger strike on February 18 escalated into armed confrontation by February 21.
    4. Poor food and living conditions: Substandard rations at HMIS Talwar triggered the immediate “No Food, No Work” strike.
    5. Low pay and limited promotion: Restricted career advancement reduced morale among Indian sailors.
    6. Harsh discipline and racial abuse: Punitive command practices and verbal insults eroded institutional trust. Example: Indian ratings faced unequal treatment compared to British personnel
    7. Influence of INA trials: Public sympathy for INA soldiers politicised naval personnel.
    8. Post-war economic distress: Inflation and uncertainty after World War II intensified dissatisfaction within the ranks.
    9. Nationalist awakening: Quit India legacy connected service grievances with the broader anti-colonial struggle.

    What Were the Events of the 1946 Royal Indian Navy Mutiny?

    1. Strike at HMIS Talwar (18 February 1946): Naval ratings in Bombay refused food and duty over poor rations and racial abuse.
    2. Formation of Naval Central Strike Committee: Sailors elected M.S. Khan and Madan Singh to coordinate action across ships and shore establishments.
    3. Spread to Other Ports: The revolt extended to Karachi, Calcutta, Madras, Visakhapatnam, Cochin, and the Andamans, involving 78 ships and 20 establishments.
    4. Adoption of Nationalist Symbols: Ratings raised Congress, Muslim League, and Communist flags, signalling political overtones beyond service grievances.
    5. Civilian Solidarity in Bombay: Textile workers, tram workers, and students joined protests, leading to city-wide strikes and clashes.
    6. British Military Suppression: Army units with armoured vehicles were deployed; firing in Bombay led to civilian casualties.
    7. Appeal by Political Leadership: Congress and Muslim League leaders urged sailors to surrender to prevent escalation.
    8. Surrender (23 February 1946): The Naval Central Strike Committee called off the revolt after five days.

    How was the revolt organised and who were its key leaders?

    1. Naval Central Strike Committee (NCSC): Formed to coordinate action across ships and establishments.
    2. M.S. Khan: Served as President of the Strike Committee, symbolising Hindu-Muslim unity.
    3. Madan Singh: Vice-President; mobilised communication between naval units.
    4. B.C. Dutt: Earlier defiance and arrest at HMIS Talwar acted as precursor catalyst.
    5. Collective Leadership Model: No single supreme commander; decentralised coordination across ports.
    6. Headquarters Concentration: Bombay functioned as nerve centre due to its communication facilities and signal training base.

    Did the British response uphold principles of proportionality and constitutional accountability?

    1. Excessive Force: Used machine guns and bayonets against stone-throwing civilians. Example: Approximately 200 working poor killed in Bombay street clashes.
    2. Urban Militarisation: Imposed coercive control over civilian areas. Example: Mill districts, tram lines, post offices and railway workshops became battlegrounds.
    3. Collective Punishment Approach: Targeted workers and students supporting ratings. Example: Textile mills and schools shut; working-class neighbourhoods barricaded.
    4. Breakdown of Civil Administration: Military assumed de facto control of the city. Example: British forces unable to regain full control for two days even after surrender on February 23.
    5. Absence of Political Dialogue: Colonial state failed to institutionalise negotiated settlement mechanisms.

    What does the revolt reveal about inter-communal solidarity amid rising polarisation?

    1. Hindu-Muslim Unity: Joint mobilisation across communities despite post-Shimla Conference tensions (1945). Example: Processions carried Congress, Muslim League, and Communist flags together.
    2. Cross-Class Participation: Workers, students, and poor residents joined naval ratings. Example: Textile mills, railway workshops, and factories shut in solidarity.
    3. Shared Anti-Colonial Identity: Shifted discourse from communal politics to national resistance.
    4. Urban Collective Action: Bombay emerged as epicentre of mass mobilisation.
    5. Temporary Overcoming of Polarisation: Demonstrated alternative trajectory before Partition violence engulfed subcontinent.

    Why did mainstream political leadership distance itself from the revolt?

    1. Strategic Restraint: Congress and Muslim League avoided endorsing armed insurrection to maintain negotiation leverage with British.
      1. Congress Strategy: Prioritised negotiated transfer of power through Cabinet Mission framework (1946).
      2. League Position: Avoided association with uncontrolled armed insurrection.
    2. Fear of Militarised Escalation: Leaders wary of uncontrolled mass uprising affecting constitutional transfer of power.
    3. Institutional Discipline Concern: Political leadership prioritised civil supremacy over armed forces.
    4. Missed Revolutionary Opportunity: Limited political backing weakened the revolt’s sustainability.

    How did the revolt influence the British decision to expedite transfer of power?

    1. Erosion of Military Reliability: Demonstrated unreliability of Indian armed forces under colonial command.
    2. Security Cost Escalation: Suppression required mobilisation of army battalions and armoured vehicles.
    3. Urban Instability Indicator: Paralysed Bombay, a key commercial hub.
    4. Imperial Fatigue Post-WWII: Combined with INA trials and economic crisis, revolt intensified British exit calculations.
    5. Accelerated Decolonisation Context: Occurred months before Cabinet Mission (1946), reinforcing urgency.

    Does the classification of the event as a “mutiny” undermine historical accountability?

    1. Narrative Minimisation: Label reduced scale to a disciplinary breach rather than mass anti-colonial uprising.
    2. Institutional Framing Bias: Colonial records prioritised law-and-order lens.
    3. Memory Marginalisation: Event received limited recognition compared to INA movement.
    4. Historiographical Debate: Raises questions about state narratives shaping public memory.
    5. Democratic Reassessment: 80th anniversary renews focus on inclusive freedom struggle narratives.

    Conclusion

    The 1946 Royal Indian Navy revolt represented a decisive rupture in colonial military authority rather than a routine disciplinary breakdown. It exposed structural discrimination within the armed forces, demonstrated cross-communal solidarity, and revealed the declining reliability of imperial coercive power. Although politically unsupported and short-lived, the uprising weakened British confidence in sustaining rule over India. In the broader trajectory of decolonisation, it marked the final phase where military disaffection converged with mass nationalism, accelerating the transfer of power in 1947.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations in India?

    Linkage: Directly asked in GS1 (2014, 10 marks), making it a high-priority theme under Modern Indian History and the final phase of the freedom struggle. It links the RIN Revolt to decolonisation, erosion of British military authority, and the accelerating transfer of power in 1947.

  • India and France upgrade their ties to strategic partnership

    Why in the News?

    India and France have upgraded their ties to “Special Global Strategic Partnership” during high-level talks between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Emmanuel Macron in Mumbai in February 2026. The development is significant because it marks a qualitative shift from defence buyer-seller relations toward co-development, co-production, and technology transfer.

    What is the list of outcomes after the visit of the French President?

      1. Upgrading of the India-France relationship to “Special Global Strategic Partnership”
      2. Establishment of annual Foreign Ministers Dialogue for regularly reviewing implementation of the elevated partnership and Horizon 2047 Roadmap
    • Technology and Innovation
        1. Launch of the India-France Year of Innovation
        2. Launch of the India-France Innovation Network
    • Defence and Security
        1. Inauguration of H125 Helicopter Final Assembly Line at Vemagal, Karnataka
        2. Renewal of the Agreement between Government of India and French Republic on Defence Cooperation
        3. Joint Venture between BEL and Safran to produce HAMMER missiles in India
        4. Reciprocal deployment of officers at Indian Army and French Land Forces establishments
    • Critical and Emerging Technologies including defence.
      1. Constitution of a Joint Advanced Technology Development Group
      2. Joint Declaration of Intent for Cooperation in Critical Minerals and Metals
      3. Letter of Intent to establish a Centre on Advanced Materials between DST and CNRS

    How does the historical evolution of the Strategic Partnership institutionalize long-term strategic autonomy?

    1. Strategic Partnership Framework (1998): Establishes India’s first-ever Strategic Partnership; strengthens strategic independence through structured cooperation in defence, civil nuclear energy, and space.
    2. Core Pillars: Anchors cooperation in Defence & Security, Civil Nuclear Energy, and Space; expands to Indo-Pacific, maritime security, digitalisation, cyber security, and advanced computing.
    3. Shared Democratic Values: Reinforces rule-based international order, multilateralism, and respect for international law; strengthens convergence in global governance platforms.
    4. Horizon 2047 Roadmap (2023): Sets a 25-year structured cooperation plan aligning with the centenary of India’s independence and diplomatic ties; ensures long-term policy predictability.
    5. Reciprocal National Day Honours (2023-24): Marks unprecedented diplomatic signalling with both leaders serving as Guests of Honour at successive national celebrations; elevates symbolic and political trust.

    How does the upgraded partnership strengthen India’s defence indigenisation and manufacturing capacity?

    1. Defence Co-production: Expands joint manufacturing through Tata-Airbus collaboration for H125 helicopters; strengthens domestic aerospace ecosystem.
    2. Indigenous Content Enhancement: Raises Rafale aircraft indigenous component target up to 50%; reduces import dependence.
    3. MRO Infrastructure Development: Establishes aero-engine Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul facilities in India; improves lifecycle cost efficiency and strategic readiness.
    4. Technology Transfer: Facilitates access to advanced aviation and defence technologies; strengthens Atmanirbhar Bharat in defence.
    5. Export Capability: Enables India to manufacture and export helicopters globally; positions India as aerospace manufacturing hub.

    What governance and regulatory implications arise from expanding cooperation in critical minerals and technology sectors?

    1. Critical Mineral Security: Diversifies sourcing arrangements; reduces vulnerability to supply disruptions in rare earths and strategic minerals.
    2. Innovation Ecosystem Integration: Launches India-France Innovation Forum; supports startups and joint R&D pipelines.
    3. Digital and AI Collaboration: Expands cooperation in Artificial Intelligence and advanced digital science; strengthens regulatory frameworks for emerging technologies.
    4. Strategic Technology Safeguards: Enhances trusted supply chains; ensures compliance with global export-control regimes.

    How does the partnership advance economic diplomacy and industrial policy objectives?

    1. Industrial Capacity Expansion: Establishes National Centre of Excellence for Skilling in Aeronautics; develops skilled aerospace workforce.
    2. Investment Facilitation: Encourages joint ventures and long-term capital flows; strengthens Make in India manufacturing clusters.
    3. Health Technology Collaboration: Launches Indo-French Centre for Digital Science and Technology; promotes research collaboration in healthcare.
    4. Value Chain Integration: Connects Indian MSMEs with French global supply chains; increases technology absorption capacity.

    What does this upgrade indicate about India’s strategic autonomy in an evolving multipolar order?

    1. Balanced Foreign Policy: Deepens engagement with France independent of bloc politics; reinforces multi-alignment strategy.
    2. Defence Diversification: Reduces over-reliance on single-source suppliers; enhances bargaining leverage.
    3. Maritime Security Cooperation: Strengthens Indo-Pacific coordination; supports freedom of navigation and regional stability.
    4. Global Governance Role: Expands collaboration in climate action, space, and nuclear energy; aligns with India’s aspiration for leadership in Global South.

    How does institutional dialogue ensure accountability and continuity in bilateral relations?

    1. Annual Defence Dialogue Mechanism: Institutionalizes periodic review of defence cooperation; ensures policy continuity.
    2. Joint Statements and Frameworks: Formalizes commitments through structured agreements; enhances transparency.
    3. Implementation Monitoring: Tracks indigenous production targets and technology-sharing commitments; ensures measurable outcomes.
    4. Sectoral Working Groups: Coordinates defence, minerals, health, and innovation cooperation through specialized channels.

    Conclusion

    India-France defence cooperation has evolved from a transactional buyer–seller model to a comprehensive strategic partnership anchored in co-development, technology transfer, and long-term industrial collaboration. The expansion into defence-space integration, Indo-Pacific maritime coordination, and advanced propulsion research reflects deep institutional trust and shared geopolitical convergence. By strengthening indigenous manufacturing, diversifying defence sourcing, and institutionalizing structured dialogue mechanisms, the partnership reinforces India’s strategic autonomy while contributing to regional stability in an increasingly multipolar and contested global order.
    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics

    Linkage: This PYQ tests ability to analyse strategic partnerships in a geopolitical framework. This is directly applicable to India-France ties, Indo-Pacific cooperation, and defence diplomacy.

  • Ramdev’s Personality Rights Plea before Delhi High Court

    Why in the News?

    Yoga guru Ramdev approached the Delhi High Court seeking protection of his personality rights against parody accounts, memes and alleged unauthorised digital identities on social media platforms. The Court orally observed that public figures cannot be overly sensitive to satire or commentary.

    What are Personality Rights?

    • Personality rights refer to a person’s right to:
      • Protect their name, image, voice, likeness and identity
      • Prevent unauthorised commercial use
      • Stop misrepresentation or false endorsement
    • In India, personality rights are not codified in a single statute but are derived from:
      • Article 21 of the Constitution, Right to life and personal liberty
      • Law of torts
      • Passing off under trademark law

    Issues Raised in the Case

    • Objection by Petitioner

      • Parody accounts allegedly using his identity
      • Meme based political commentary
      • Digital identities created without consent
      • Alleged monetisation and product endorsement

    • Stand of Social Media Platforms

      • Satire, political commentary and fair comment must be protected
      • Not all parody violates personality rights
      • Some accounts already suspended or modified
    [2024] Under which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India, has the Supreme Court of India placed the Right to Privacy? (a) Article 15 

    (b) Article 16 

    (c) Article 19 

    (d) Article 21

  • Iran briefly closes the Strait of Hormuz amid US nuclear talks

    Why in the News?

    Iran announced a temporary closure of part of the Strait of Hormuz during indirect nuclear talks with the United States in Geneva, marking the first such announcement amid escalating tensions.

    About the Strait of Hormuz

    • Narrow maritime chokepoint between:
      • Iran
      • Oman
    • Connects:
      • Persian Gulf
      • Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea
    • Around 20 percent of global oil trade passes through it.
    • Critical for exports from:
      • Saudi Arabia
      • United Arab Emirates
      • Iraq and Kuwait

    Background: US–Iran Nuclear Talks

    • Talks held in Geneva through Omani mediation.
    • Discussions focused on:
      • Iran’s nuclear programme
      • Sanctions relief
    • Iran insists it will not give up uranium enrichment.
    • US reportedly seeks to widen talks to include missile capability.
    [2024] Consider the following statements: 

    Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe. 

    Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. 

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? 

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I 

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I 

    (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect 

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

  • AI Mission 2.0 and Expansion of Common Compute

    Why in the News?

    At the AI Impact Summit in New Delhi, the Union IT Minister announced the launch of AI Mission 2.0 and the addition of 20,000 GPUs to the government’s common compute infrastructure under the IndiaAI Mission.

    What is the Common Compute Cluster?

    • Government supported shared AI infrastructure
    • Objective: Democratise access to expensive AI computing resources and reduce entry barriers.
    • Provides access to high performance GPUs
    • Open to:
      • Startups
      • Researchers
      • Academia
      • Indian AI firms

    Key Announcements

    • Addition of 20,000 GPUs

      • To be installed within six months
      • Strengthens national AI compute capacity
      • Supports training of large language models and advanced AI systems

    • AI Mission 2.0

      • Greater focus on:
      • AI research and development
      • Innovation ecosystem
      • AI diffusion across sectors
      • Strengthening public digital infrastructure

    • Indigenous Foundational Model

      • A foundational large language model from an Indian firm expected
      • Aim: Build applications with real public impact
    [2025] Consider the following statements: I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. 

    II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). 

    III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III

  • India’s First Private Helicopter Assembly Line at Vemagal

    Why in the News?

    India’s first private sector helicopter Final Assembly Line was inaugurated at Vemagal, Kolar district, Karnataka to manufacture Airbus H125 helicopters through a partnership between Tata Advanced Systems and Airbus.

    Key Entities Involved

    • Tata Advanced Systems Limited
    • Airbus
    • France
    • Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

    About the Facility

    • Location: Vemagal, Kolar district, Karnataka
    • Type: Private sector Final Assembly Line
    • Product: Airbus H125 single engine helicopter
    • Initial annual capacity: 10 helicopters
    • First delivery expected: Early 2027
    • Will serve Indian and South Asian markets

    This becomes the fourth global production site for the H125 after France, USA and Brazil.

    About H125 Helicopter

    • One of the world’s best selling single engine helicopters
    • Over 4,300 units flying globally
    • Certified under European Union Aviation Safety Agency standards
    • Designed for high altitude and rugged terrain operations

    Military Variant

    • H125M version proposed
    • Seen as a successor to Cheetah and Chetak helicopters
    • Suitable for:
      • Tactical reconnaissance
      • High altitude logistics
      • Search and rescue
      • Medical evacuation
    [2024] Consider the following aircraft: 

    1. Rafael 

    2. MiG-29 

    3. Tejas MK-1 

    How many of the above are considered fifth generation fighter aircraft? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

  • Supreme Court on Fraternity & Public Speech by Constitutional Functionaries

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India orally observed that political leaders and holders of high public office must foster fraternity and adhere to constitutional morality while hearing a petition alleging stigmatizing and discriminatory public statements by Chief Ministers and senior officials.

    Constitutional Provisions Involved

    • Preamble: Secures Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
    • Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of laws.
    • Article 19(1)(a): Freedom of speech and expression.
    • Article 19(2): Reasonable restrictions on speech.
    • Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
    • Article 51A(e): Fundamental duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood.

    Key Observations by the Court

    • Political leaders must promote fraternity in a 75 plus year old democracy.
    • Constitutional functionaries are not ordinary speakers as their words carry the imprimatur of the State.
    • Need for restraint in communally divisive and discriminatory speeches.
    • Court indicated willingness to consider guidelines, without imposing prior restraint.
    • Concern over “normalisation” of constitutionally unbecoming speeches.

    Important Concepts for Prelims

    • Constitutional Morality: First articulated in Indian constitutional discourse in Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (2018). Refers to adherence to constitutional values over majoritarian impulses.
    • Fraternity: Ensures unity and integrity of the nation. Protects dignity of the individual. Linked to prevention of hate speech and social exclusion.
    • Constitutional Tort: Public law remedy where State action violates fundamental rights. Compensation may be awarded for violation of rights by public authorities.

    Free Speech vs. Accountability

    • No prior censorship advocated.
    • Focus on regulating consequences of speech when made by high public officials.
    • Balancing Article 19(1)(a) with Article 14 and Article 21.
    [2017] Which one of the following statements is correct? (a) Rights are claims of the State against the citizens. 

    (b) Rights are privileges which are incorporated in the Constitution of a State. 

    (c) Rights are claims of the citizens against the State. 

    (d) Rights are privileges of a few citizens against the many.

  • [17th February 2026] The Hindu OpED: India’s federalism is need of a structural reset

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-Stare relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

    Linkage: This question directly examines contemporary shifts in Centre-State dynamics, aligning with the structural reset debate. It enables discussion on centralisation trends, fiscal federalism, and institutional trust, core themes of the article.

    Mentor’s Comment:

    This article addresses the structural evolution of Indian federalism, a core GS Paper II theme with direct constitutional and governance relevance. It equips aspirants to critically analyse Centre-State tensions beyond politics, linking doctrine, fiscal policy, and institutional accountability.

    Why in the News?

    The federalism debate has intensified after the Tamil Nadu-constituted Justice Kurian Joseph Committee submitted Part I of its report reviewing Union-State relations. The report questions the expanding legislative and fiscal footprint of the Union and argues that excessive centralisation is weakening functional federal balance. Since federalism forms part of the Constitution’s Basic Structure, the issue carries long-term institutional implications beyond routine political contestation.

    What Is the Current Constitutional Structure of Federalism in India?

    The current constitutional structure of Indian federalism is a “Union of States” (Article 1) featuring a dual polity with a strong centralizing bias, designed to balance regional autonomy with national integrity. It operates through a three-fold legislative distribution (Seventh Schedule), a written constitution, an independent judiciary, and emergency provisions (Articles 352-360) that can alter the federal balance. 

    Key components of this structure include:

    1. Quasi-Federal Design: Establishes a federal polity with a strong Union; sovereignty rests with the Constitution, not the States.
    2. Division of Powers: The Seventh Schedule divides subjects into the Union List (exclusive central power), State List (exclusive state power), and Concurrent List (shared power).
    3. Residuary Powers (Article 248): Vests residuary subjects in Parliament, strengthening central authority.
    4. Emergency Provisions (Articles 352, 356, 360): Enable temporary centralisation; Article 356 permits President’s Rule in States.
    5. Fiscal Federalism: The Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends tax revenue distribution between the Union and States.
    6. Judicial Oversight: The Supreme Court (e.g., S.R. Bommai case) has declared federalism part of the “Basic Structure,” meaning it cannot be destroyed by constitutional amendment.
    7. Cooperative/Asymmetrical Federalism: Mechanisms include the Inter-State Council (Article 263) and special provisions for certain states (Schedules V and VI). 

    While often called “quasi-federal” due to these centralizing features, the system enables states to function as independent constitutional entities in ordinary times

    Why Is There a Need for a Structural Reset in India’s Federal Framework?

    1. Excessive Centralisation: Union intervention has expanded beyond constitutional limits. Example: Increasing central laws on education policy despite education being in the Concurrent List.
    2. Diminished State Autonomy: Legislative and administrative discretion of States has narrowed. Example: Uniform GST structure limits States’ independent taxation powers.
    3. Governor’s Expanding Discretion: Delays in assent affect State legislative functioning. Example: Delay in assent to Bills passed by the Tamil Nadu Assembly led to litigation before the Supreme Court.
    4. Overlapping Governance Roles: Union ministries operate in State-assigned sectors. Example: Central regulatory frameworks in health and agriculture influence areas primarily managed by States.
    5. Weak Institutional Dialogue: Federal mechanisms function less as consultative forums. Example: Limited effective use of the Inter-State Council under Article 263 for resolving disputes.

    Has Centralisation Distorted the Original Constitutional Balance?

    1. Historical Design Bias: The Constitution adopted a federal structure with a strong Centre due to post-Partition insecurity and integration of 500+ princely States.
    2. Legislative Expansion: Expansion of Union legislation in Concurrent List subjects has reduced State autonomy.
    3. Subordinate Legislation: Union executive increasingly overrides State laws through procedural and regulatory mechanisms.
    4. Conditional Fiscal Transfers: Centrally Sponsored Schemes impose rigid templates, limiting State flexibility.
    5. Administrative Duplication: Expansion of Union ministries into domains traditionally managed by States creates functional overlap.

    Outcome: Centralisation increases reach but reduces contextual responsiveness.

    Does Judicial Doctrine Adequately Protect Federalism in Practice?

    1. Basic Structure Protection: Federalism declared part of Basic Structure in S.R. Bommai (1994).
    2. Plenary State Authority: States are not administrative appendages within their allotted spheres.
    3. Doctrinal-Practical Gap: Despite judicial affirmation, legislative and fiscal trends favour uniform national solutions over contextual diversity.
    4. Executive Overreach: Increasing preference for central regulation in health, education, and agriculture dilutes State discretion.

    Outcome: Constitutional doctrine protects federalism normatively; implementation trends weaken it functionally.

    Does Over-Centralisation Reduce Governance Effectiveness?

    1. Administrative Overstretch: Concentration of responsibilities burdens Union institutions beyond efficient supervisory capacity.
    2. Context Insensitivity: National policy frameworks fail to reflect linguistic, ecological, agricultural, and industrial diversity.
    3. Innovation Suppression: Uniform schemes restrict experimentation at State level.
    4. Evidence of Success:
      1. Tamil Nadu’s noon meal scheme originated as a State innovation before national expansion.
      2. Kerala’s public health and literacy models evolved from decentralised governance
      3. Maharashtra’s employment guarantee model preceded national adoption.

    Outcome: Decentralisation enables pilot-based policy diffusion and scalable innovation.

    Does Fiscal Federalism Adequately Empower States?

    1. Vertical Imbalance: States undertake major expenditure responsibilities (health, education, policing) but possess limited taxation powers.
    2. Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Rigid conditionalities reduce State fiscal discretion.
    3. GST Structure: Shared taxation reduces independent fiscal manoeuvrability.
    4. Expanding Mandates: Increasing regulatory complexity and expanding central schemes stretch State resources.

    Outcome: Fiscal dependency weakens accountability and policy autonomy.

    Does Capacity Argument Justify Intrusive Central Control?

    The Capacity Argument refers to the claim that many States lack adequate administrative, financial, or technical capability to effectively implement complex policies. On this basis, the Union justifies greater central intervention, standardisation, and control in governance domains.

    1. Capacity Paradox: Claims that States lack administrative capacity lead to central intervention.
    2. Dependency Cycle: Persistent intervention prevents States from developing institutional competence.
    3. Accountability Deficit: Decision-making shifts away from local voters toward distant central authorities.
    4. Comparative Federalism Insight: Decentralised federations globally deliver sustained quality, equity, and competitiveness through shared responsibility.

    Outcome: Capacity develops through responsibility, autonomy, and corrective feedback.

    What Institutional Reforms Are Being Proposed for Recalibration?

    1. High-Level Committee Review: Comprehensive review of Governors’ role, legislative competence, and fiscal relations.
    2. Right-Sizing Objective: Aligns authority with responsibility without weakening national unity.
    3. Structural Reforms: Calls for rebalancing rather than incremental adjustment.
    4. Federal Accountability: Emphasises trust-based partnership between Union and States.

    Outcome: Recalibration deepens unity by strengthening cooperative federalism.

    Conclusion

    India’s constitutional design created a Union with strength, not supremacy. Contemporary governance trends indicate a steady expansion of central authority across legislative, fiscal, and administrative domains. The Justice Kurian Joseph Committee’s intervention reframes the debate from political contestation to structural recalibration.

    A durable federal balance requires aligning authority with responsibility, restoring meaningful consultation, and strengthening institutional trust. Recalibration of Centre–State relations would enhance accountability, improve policy responsiveness, and preserve the constitutional promise of cooperative federalism.

  • The cost of controls on the fertiliser industry

    Why in the News?

    The Uttar Pradesh government has prohibited urea manufacturers and suppliers from selling “gair-anudaanit” (non-subsidised) fertilisers in the state. The order affects cooperative, public, and private firms.

    The action follows allegations of “tagging,” wherein farmers were allegedly compelled to purchase non-subsidised products along with subsidised fertilisers. However, the non-subsidised segment constitutes only 0.4 million tonnes annually, compared to India’s 67 million tonnes total fertiliser market, making the regulatory response appear disproportionate in scale.

    What is the Structure of the Fertiliser Industry in India

    1. High Regulatory Intensity: One of the most regulated industries in India.
    2. Core Products: Urea, Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MOP), NPK complexes.
    3. Statutory Framework: Governed under Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 1985.
    4. Administered Pricing: Urea MRP fixed at same level since November 2012.
    5. Subsidy Regime: P&K fertilisers operate under Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) with capped retail pricing.
    6. Decontrol Paradox: Though labelled “decontrolled,” effective price and profit oversight continues through subsidy-linked conditions.

    How has fertiliser consumption and import dependence evolved?

    1. Rising Consumption: Total consumption increased significantly over recent years, reaching 67 million tonnes (2024-25).
    2. Urea Dominance: Urea consumption significantly exceeds P&K usage due to lower administered prices.
    3. Import Dependence: High import reliance for phosphatic and potassic fertilisers increases vulnerability to global price volatility.
    4. Price Differential: DAP priced at ₹27/kg and MOP at ₹19.40/kg under subsidy regime; non-subsidised variants priced substantially higher.
    5. Nutrient Imbalance: Excessive nitrogen usage distorts soil health due to price asymmetry.

    How does the fertiliser price control regime operate under the Fertiliser Control Order (FCO), 1985?

    1. Statutory Control: Operates under the Fertiliser Control Order, 1985 issued under the Essential Commodities Act framework.
    2. Administered Pricing: Fixes Maximum Retail Price (MRP) of urea at ₹266.5 per 45 kg bag.
    3. Subsidy Mechanism: Compensates manufacturers for cost-production gap through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) to companies.
    4. Input Regulation: Controls MRP of urea; phosphatic and potassic (P&K) fertilisers operate under Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme.
    5. Movement Control: Allocates fertiliser supply across states based on assessed demand.

    Is the fertiliser sector truly decontrolled, or does effective government control persist?

    The fertilizer sector operates under the Fertiliser Control Order, 1985 issued under the Essential Commodities Act framework.

    1. Profit Oversight: Department of Fertilisers can recover subsidy if “unreasonable profit” is detected.
    2. Conditional Decontrol: Companies cannot freely price products without risking subsidy clawback.
    3. Operational Dependence: Business viability tied to state reimbursement mechanisms.

    How does state control extend beyond pricing into movement and distribution?

    1. Agreed Supply Plan: Department of Fertilisers prepares state-wise, season-wise, month-wise allocation.
    2. Railway Rake Planning: Dispatches governed by official rail and road movement schedules.
    3. District Allocation: Agriculture officers allocate fertiliser dealer-wise upon arrival.
    4. FOR Basis Delivery: Companies must supply on freight-on-road basis.
    5. Limited Commercial Autonomy: Private firms cannot independently determine timing, quantity, or geography of sales.

    Does price control ensure equity or generate inefficiency in fertiliser distribution?

    1. Affordability Objective: Ensures low input costs for farmers, supporting food security.
    2. Fiscal Burden: Expands fertiliser subsidy bill significantly; recurrent pressure on Union Budget.
    3. Inefficient Usage: Encourages overuse of subsidised urea due to artificially low prices.
    4. Leakages and Diversion: Facilitates diversion for industrial use or cross-border smuggling.
    5. Soil Degradation: Skews NPK ratio, affecting long-term soil productivity.

    What economic role do non-subsidised fertilisers play in the industry’s survival model?

    1. Cross-Subsidisation Mechanism: Higher margins from speciality nutrients offset thin margins from urea.
    2. Capital Recovery: Supports working capital cycles in a subsidy-dependent system.
    3. Innovation Incentive: Enables R&D in micronutrients and water-soluble fertilisers.
    4. Market Size Contrast: 0.4 million tonnes speciality vs 67 million tonnes total market.
    5. Profitability Cushion: Provides financial flexibility under price-capped regime.

    What governance concerns arise from restrictions on non-subsidised fertiliser sales?

    1. Market Distortion: Restricting non-subsidised fertiliser sales limits firms’ ability to offset losses from controlled urea pricing.
    2. Investment Sentiment: Reduces profitability of a ₹13,000 crore segment, affecting private sector participation.
    3. Regulatory Overreach: State-level intervention in areas traditionally governed by central FCO raises federal coordination concerns.
    4. Cross-subsidisation Constraint: Prevents companies from leveraging higher-margin non-subsidised products.
    5. Policy Uncertainty: Sudden bans create unpredictability in regulatory environment.

    Does price asymmetry distort nutrient usage and environmental sustainability?

    1. Price Signal Distortion: Urea at ₹5.9/kg incentivises excessive nitrogen application.
    2. Nutrient Imbalance: Skews N:P:K ratio in Indian soils.
    3. Soil Health Impact: Degrades soil productivity over time.
    4. High-Value Crop Use: Speciality fertilisers critical for fruits, vegetables, sugarcane.
    5. Environmental Externalities: Overuse contributes to groundwater contamination and emissions.

    What are the governance and federalism implications of the UP ban?

    1. Concurrent Jurisdiction: Fertilisers fall under Entry 33, Concurrent List.
    2. Centre-State Overlap: FCO issued by Centre; implementation often state-driven.
    3. Regulatory Fragmentation: State-specific bans risk policy inconsistency.
    4. Investor Sentiment Impact: Capital-intensive industry requires regulatory predictability.
    5. Unintended Consequence Risk: May enable unorganised low-quality suppliers to fill supply gap.

    Does heavy subsidy dependence raise fiscal sustainability concerns?

    1. Large Subsidy Outlay: Fertiliser subsidy remains a major budgetary commitment.
    2. Fiscal Trade-offs: Crowds out productive expenditure.
    3. Import Dependence: Raw materials such as phosphate rock and potash largely imported.
    4. Global Price Exposure: Vulnerable to external commodity shocks.
    5. Reform Stagnation: Urea decontrol proposals repeatedly deferred.

    Conclusion

    India’s fertiliser sector demonstrates the limits of excessive state control in a market critical to food security. While administered pricing and subsidies ensure affordability, layered controls over pricing, movement, and profitability risk distorting nutrient use, weakening industry viability, and discouraging investment. A calibrated approach that rationalises subsidies, restores balanced price signals, and ensures regulatory predictability is essential to align farmer welfare with long-term agricultural sustainability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] What are the direct and indirect subsidies provided to farm sector in India? Discuss the issues raised by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in relation to agricultural subsidies.

    Linkage: This question directly links to India’s fertiliser subsidy regime, price controls, and DBT architecture. It also connects to debates on subsidy distortion, fiscal burden, and compliance with the WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), especially concerning input subsidies and trade distortion limits.

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