[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggest ed by various committees with particular reference to “one na tion-one election” principle.
Linkage: The article talks about the “Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar,” initiated on June 24, 2025, after a gap of over 20 years. This SIR is described as a “complete reconstruction of the electoral rolls” based on document submission which is directly related electoral reforms given in question.
Mentor’s Comment: The Election Commission of India (ECI) has launched a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the electoral rolls in Bihar, just months before the upcoming State Assembly elections in 2025. The process has drawn widespread criticism for being sudden, opaque, and document-heavy, potentially disenfranchising lakhs of eligible voters, particularly migrants, Muslims, and the poor. It is now being challenged in the Supreme Court for violating fundamental rights such as the right to vote, equality, and dignity. The issue has national implications, as similar exercises are reportedly planned in other states.
Today’s editorial analyses the issues related to Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the electoral rolls in Bihar. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Polity and Governance) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Election Commission of India (ECI) started a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the voter list in Bihar, just a few months before the 2025 State Assembly elections.
What is Special Intensive Revision (SIR)?
Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a process carried out by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to update and verify the electoral rolls (voter lists) more thoroughly than usual.
Key Features of SIR:
Not a routine update: Unlike regular annual revisions, SIR involves a more detailed and document-heavy verification process.
Document verification: Voters are required to submit proof of citizenship (like birth certificates, land documents, or school records), especially if they are not listed in older rolls (e.g., from 2003).
Purpose: Officially, it aims to: Remove duplicate or deceased voters, Identify ineligible entries, and Add newly eligible voters.
Why is the Bihar Special Intensive Revision (SIR) seen as a threat to electoral democracy?
Sudden and Opaque Implementation: The SIR was launched abruptly in June 2025 with minimal public awareness and a tight deadline of July 31, offering little time for a state with high migration and low documentation. Eg:Migrants working outside Bihar during monsoon may be excluded due to inability to submit documents on time.
Document-Heavy Verification Process: Common documents like Aadhaar or voter ID are not accepted. Instead, hard-to-obtain papers like birth certificates, land records, or matriculation certificates are required, placing a disproportionate burden on poor, rural populations.
Creation of a Two-Tier Citizenship: The process presumes voters not on the 2003 rolls are “suspect” citizens until proven otherwise, undermining the principle of universal adult franchise and equal voting rights. Eg: Like in Assam’s NRC, the burden of proof shifts to individuals, potentially creating a permanent class of disenfranchised citizens.
Violation of Natural Justice: Requiring voters to prove citizenshipreverses the principle of “innocent until proven guilty” and treats individuals as suspect citizens unless they can prove otherwise. Eg: In the Bihar SIR process, those not on the 2003 voter list must submit rarely available documents like birth certificates or land records, making many vulnerable to arbitrary exclusion.
How does the Bihar SIR compare with Assam’s NRC exercise?
Aspect
Bihar SIR (2025)
Assam NRC (2013–2019)
1. Suddenness vs. Supervised Process
Launched suddenly with only one-month deadline, causing logistical challenges.
Conducted over six years, supervised by Supreme Court, with phased rollout.
2. Legal Oversight
No direct judicial monitoring; raises concerns about transparency and accountability.
Directly monitored by the Supreme Court, ensuring legal safeguards.
3. Scale and Timeframe
Targets 50 million voters in just one monsoon month, with floods and migration.
Covered 33 million applicants in multiple phases over years.
4. Document Requirements
Demands rare documents (birth/matriculation/land records); common IDs not accepted.
Required legacy documents, but provided assistance centres and lists.
5. Purpose and Outcome
Ostensibly for voter list update, but risks becoming a citizenship test, causing mass disenfranchisement.
Explicitly aimed at identifying illegal immigrants; excluded 19 lakh people.
What constitutional principles are at stake in the current voter verification drive?
Universal Adult Franchise: Article 326 guarantees every Indian citizen above 18 the right to vote without discrimination. The demand for rare documents like land titles or educational certificates risks excluding poor and illiterate citizens.
Equality Before Law (Article 14): The selective burden of proof imposed on new or undocumented voters violates the principle of equal treatment. It creates two classes of citizens — one presumed to be voters and another forced to prove eligibility.
Presumption of Innocence (Principle of Natural Justice): The shift of burden from the state to the citizen undermines the principle that individuals are “innocent until proven guilty.”
Who are the vulnerable groups most affected by the SIR process?
Migrant Workers: The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) disproportionately affects migrant workers who are often away from their home constituencies during the verification period, especially in July, a peak seasonal migration month.
Poor and Illiterate Citizens: Those from economically weaker sections, particularly in rural areas, often lack the official documents such as birth certificates, matriculation degrees, or land records now required for voter verification. Their reliance on documents like Aadhaar, ration cards, or job cards, which the ECI currently does not accept, puts them at risk of disenfranchisement.
Women (especially Elderly or Homemakers): Many women, especially widows, elderly, or those confined to domestic roles, are not listed on ownership documents and may lack the required identity proofs.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs/STs): Historically marginalised communities such as SCs and STs face greater hurdles due to their geographic isolation, poor access to services, and lower literacy levels, making it harder to furnish the required documentation to prove citizenship or residence.
Urban Slum Dwellers and Informal Settlers: Migrants living in slums or unauthorised colonies in cities often lack registered addresses, utility bills, or tenancy documents. This makes it difficult to verify their voter eligibility either in their native village or in the urban location, risking double exclusion from electoral rolls.
Way forward:
Ensure Inclusive and Transparent Voter Verification Process: Extend the verification timeline, especially in high-migration and flood-prone regions like Bihar. Accept commonly held identity documents such as Aadhaar, voter ID, and ration cards as valid proof. This would reduce arbitrary exclusions and uphold the principle of universal franchise.
Protect Vulnerable Groups through Targeted Support: Launch doorstep assistance, mobile camps, and helplines in rural, tribal, and urban slum areas to help citizens gather documents and complete verification. Special provisions should be made for migrants, women, SC/STs, and informal workers, ensuring no one is disenfranchised due to procedural hurdles.
N4S: This article shows how indigenous tech in Operation Sindoor helped neutralise threats while signalling India’s growing self-reliance. Using the operation as an anchor, it analyses the full supply chain, key reforms since Independence, systemic challenges, and what India must do next to become a defence manufacturing powerhouse. UPSC usually doesn’t ask straight questions like “What is Make in India in defence?” Instead, it frames analytical questions like the one in GS Paper 3 (2020) on security threats and the role of forces—testing your ability to link defence capabilities, policy, and geopolitical threats. Aspirants often falter by mugging schemes without connecting them to real operations, institutional structures, or the larger strategy. This article helps fill that gap. It offers layered understanding—from Operation Sindoor’s field-level tech usage to the Defence Acquisition Procedure 2020—backed with examples and committee insights.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 3: Analyze internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Ban gladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard. [2020]
MICROTHEME: Security Forces and their Mandates
Operation Sindoor marked a defining moment for Make in India, demonstrating India’s precision strike capabilities powered by homegrown defence technologies. This operation was a powerful proof of concept for the Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat initiatives.But how far has India truly come in closing the technological gaps in defence? What structural changes are still needed to ensure that indigenous innovation becomes the backbone of our military strength? And can India balance rapid modernization with strategic self-reliance to emerge as a global defence powerhouse?
Operation Sindoor: A Defining Moment for Atmanirbhar Bharat in Defence
Operation Sindoor was more than a military success—it was a powerful demonstration of India’s growing self-reliance in defence. This operation showcased how the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat is transforming the nation’s defence capabilities by the following ways:
1. Indigenous Air Defence Systems: Shielding the Nation: Indian-developed systems like the Akash Surface-to-Air Missile and the SAMAR Air Defence System played a pivotal role in neutralizing over 600 hostile drones and missiles during the operation. These systems, developed by Indian public and private sector entities, proved their effectiveness in real combat scenarios, underscoring India’s capability to produce advanced defence technologies domestically.
2. Precision Strikes with Indigenous Drones: Private sector companies such as Tata Advanced Systems and Paras Defence supplied loitering munitions and swarm drones that were instrumental in executing precise strikes on terrorist infrastructure. These platforms, developed under the ‘Make in India’ initiative, enabled India to conduct operations with minimal collateral damage, highlighting the strategic advantage of homegrown technology.
3. Government Initiatives Fueling Innovation: Programs like iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence) and SRIJAN have been instrumental in fostering innovation within the private sector. These initiatives provided the necessary support and incentives for companies to develop and deploy indigenous solutions, accelerating India’s journey towards defence self-reliance.
4. Validation of ‘Made-in-India’ Weaponry: The successful deployment of indigenous weapons during Operation Sindoor has validated their reliability and effectiveness. This success not only boosts domestic confidence but also enhances India’s reputation as a global hub for defence manufacturing.
5. Strategic Integration Across Forces: The seamless integration of indigenous technologies across the Army, Navy, and Air Force during the operation demonstrated the strategic advantage of a unified, self-reliant defence ecosystem. This integration ensures coordinated responses and enhances operational efficiency.
6. Boosting Defence Exports: Operation Sindoor has paved the way for increased defence exports. The successful use of indigenous equipment has positioned India as a reliable supplier of advanced military technologies, with defence exports reaching ₹23,000 crore in FY25 and projected to touch ₹50,000 crore by 2029.
India’s Defence Industry Ecosystem
Component
Key Stakeholders/Entities
Role in the Supply Chain
1. Government Bodies & Policymakers
– Ministry of Defence (MoD) – Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) – Dept. of Defence Production (DDP)
Policy formulation, procurement approvals, funding, and regulation
Design, production, and technology partnerships for defence systems and components
5. MSMEs & Startups
– Small and Medium Enterprises across India – Funded under iDEX and Make in India schemes
Precision manufacturing, sub-component supply, electronics, and rapid innovation
6. Foreign OEMs & Partners
– Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Airbus, Rafael, etc.
Technology transfer, joint ventures, FDI, and fulfilling offset obligations
7. Regulatory & Quality Agencies
– Directorate General of Quality Assurance (DGQA) – Licensing Authorities
Quality testing, standardisation, regulatory compliance for defence production
8. Armed Forces (End-Users)
– Indian Army – Indian Navy – Indian Air Force
Requirement specification, field trials, operational feedback for continuous improvement and deployment readiness
India’s Defence Indigenisation: Evolution Over the Years
1. Post-Independence Phase (1947–1980s): Import Dependence with State-Led Production
After 1947, India relied heavily on imports to meet its defence needs.
The government established defence public sector undertakings (DPSUs) like HAL (1940), BEL (1954), BEML, and DRDO (1958) to kickstart indigenous production.
Focus remained on license production (e.g., MiG-21 from USSR) rather than original design.
The military-civilian research disconnect and lack of private sector involvement slowed innovation.
2. The Self-Reliance Push (1980s–1990s): Limited Technological Gains
Indigenous projects like the Light Combat Aircraft (Tejas) and Arjun tank were launched, but saw major delays.
Import dependence continued, particularly for high-tech equipment.
The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) was introduced in 1992 to formalise acquisitions but still favoured foreign vendors.
3. Opening Up & Strategic Partnerships (2000s–2010s): Private Sector Enters
Post-Kargil Review Committee, India recognised the need for self-sufficiency in critical systems.
The 2001 policy opened defence production to the private sector and allowed 26% FDI (now up to 74% under automatic route).
Defence offsets were introduced in 2005 to encourage local production.
However, execution lagged due to bureaucratic hurdles and lack of synergy.
4. Make in India & Beyond (2014 onwards): Reforms, Modernisation, and Innovation
Under the ‘Make in India’ initiative, defence became a focus sector.
Policy measures included:
Creation of Defence Corridors in UP and Tamil Nadu.
Launch of Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) to support startups and MSMEs.
Negative import list (now Positive Indigenisation List) of defence items to boost local procurement.
Push for DRDO–private sector collaborations and corporatisation of Ordnance Factory Board (OFB).
Flagship projects like INS Vikrant, Tejas Mk1A, Dhanush artillery, and AK-203 (with Russian collaboration) symbolise indigenisation progress.
5. Present & Emerging Trends
India is now among the top 25 arms exporters, with key exports to Southeast Asia and Africa.
The Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 promotes indigenous content across categories.
Stronger emphasis on dual-use technologies, AI in defence, cyber warfare tools, and space militarisation.The aim is to transform India from the world’s largest arms importer to a global hub of defence manufacturing.
Challenges of defence indigenisation//MAINS
Each stakeholder in the defence indigenisation chain faces specific pain points—from policy bottlenecks to technological dependence, funding gaps, and trust issues between the military and manufacturers. These must be systematically addressed to achieve true Atmanirbharta in defence.
Component
Challenges
Example
1. Government Bodies & Policymakers
Bureaucratic delays in approvals, frequent policy changes, and slow implementation of procurement reforms.
Despite multiple reforms, procurement under the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) often sees long delays—e.g., the Rafale deal took over a decade to finalise.
2. Public Sector Units (PSUs)
Low productivity, limited innovation, and over-dependence on DRDO/IPR transfers. Slow to adopt modern production systems.
HAL delayed the delivery of Tejas Mk-1, impacting Air Force induction timelines and operational preparedness.
3. R&D Institutions (DRDO & others)
Time and cost overruns, limited coordination with users, and weak integration with industry.
DRDO’s Arjun Tank project took over 30 years, and was only partially accepted by the Army due to performance and logistical concerns.
4. Private Sector Companies
Limited access to defence contracts, technology, and design IP. Often lack level-playing field vis-à-vis PSUs.
L&T and Tata have developed major naval platforms, but frequently lose major contracts to shipyards like MDL due to preferential treatment.
5. MSMEs & Startups
Lack of working capital, complex compliance norms, and delays in payment from DPSUs.
Many MSMEs supplying parts to BEL or HAL face delays of over 6–12 months in payments, affecting sustainability.
6. Foreign OEMs & Partners
Reluctance to transfer core technologies, offset implementation delays, and strategic trust issues.
Several foreign OEMs fulfill offset obligations via services or non-critical components; core tech transfer often avoided (e.g., no engine tech with Rafale).
7. Regulatory & Quality Agencies
Cumbersome quality assurance, lack of automation, and inconsistent standards across labs and factories.
DGQA processes often delay final product acceptance; Indian Army has complained about long wait times in artillery trials.
8. Armed Forces (End Users)
Changing specifications, lack of alignment with R&D timelines, and preference for proven imports.
The Army’s frequent upgrades to requirements delayed Future Infantry Combat Vehicle (FICV) development despite years of DRDO effort.
Systemic Challenges
1. Technology & Capability Gaps
Still Dependent on Imports: Even today, over one-third of our defence buys come from abroad due to a lack of domestic high-tech capability.
Slow Innovation in R&D: Barely 4% of the defence budget goes into research. This holds back growth in key areas like AI, hypersonic tech, and quantum systems.
2. Delays & Inefficiencies
Bureaucratic Red Tape: The procurement process is slow and clunky—equipment approvals take time, affecting how fast our forces modernize.
Indigenous Projects Take Too Long: Homegrown defence projects like the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) have taken decades, leaving gaps in capability.
3. Ecosystem Imbalance
Public Sector Dominance: PSUs still dominate; private players face limited access and contribute only around 21% to total production.
Weak Public–Private Collaboration: There’s little synergy between state-run units and private defence manufacturers.
4. Global & Strategic Setbacks
Struggles in Exporting Arms: While exports are improving, India still finds it hard to compete globally with giants like the US and Russia.
Cyber & EW Gaps: India lacks cutting-edge capabilities in cybersecurity and electronic warfare, making its systems vulnerable.
5. Strategic & Policy Hurdles
No Fully Integrated Defence Strategy: The Army, Navy, and Air Force still don’t work closely enough—joint commands are delayed.
Internal Security Takes Focus Away: Resources often get pulled toward handling terrorism and insurgency, slowing defence modernization.
Indigenisation Policy Gaps: Despite mandates, real localisation is tricky—supply chains are global, and it’s hard to measure true ‘Made in India’ content.
Way Forward
Boost Indigenous Tech: Invest more in R&D and support startups to develop advanced defence technologies like AMCA, hypersonics, and AI systems.
Simplify Procurement: Speed up and digitize procurement, prioritize “Buy Indian,” and ease export approvals to grow domestic industry and global sales.
Enhance Collaboration: Promote strong partnerships between public sector units, private companies, and academia for faster innovation.
Build Skills & Infrastructure: Develop specialised defence training and upgrade manufacturing with advanced technologies and Defence Industrial Corridors.
Strengthen Cybersecurity: Create a dedicated Cyber Command and use AI to defend against modern digital threats.
Integrate Forces & Policies: Implement joint theatre commands and ensure consistent policies and funding for strategic growth and readiness.
#BACK2BASICS: Key Committees Shaping Defence Indigenisation in India: A Chronological Overview
Here’s a list of 8 important committees on defence indigenisation in India, arranged chronologically:
Year
Committee Name
Purpose / Focus
1959
Sinha Committee
Early focus on defence production and self-reliance
1998
Kalam Committee
Strengthening indigenous R&D and reducing import dependence
2004
Naresh Chandra Task Force
Reforming DRDO and DPSUs; enhancing private sector participation
2007
Subrahmanyam Committee
Defence production and technology acquisition
2016
Shekatkar Committee
Enhancing defence procurement efficiency and budget optimization
2017
Shyam Saran Committee
Promoting ‘Make in India’ in defence and boosting R&D
2018
Kalyani Committee
Encouraging private sector in defence production
2020
Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) Reforms
Indigenous content mandates and procurement process reforms
Major Defence Indigenisation Reforms in India //PRELIMS
Year
Reform/Policy
Description & Impact
Before 2000
Procurement Process Overview
Before 2000, India’s defence procurement was largely import-dependent, with minimal emphasis on indigenous manufacturing. The process was slow, bureaucratic, and focused mainly on acquiring ready-made foreign equipment. Indigenous industry played a marginal role, and there was little policy push to promote domestic capabilities or private sector participation. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) handled most R&D but faced challenges in timely delivery and commercialization.
2001
Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) 2001
Introduced for the first time, this procedure categorized procurement into “Buy Indian,” “Buy and Make (Indian),” and “Buy (Global).” It aimed to prioritize indigenous manufacturing, encourage technology transfer, and create a structured framework for acquisitions. This marked the first policy-level recognition of the importance of self-reliance.
2007
Defence Production Policy
This policy explicitly focused on increasing the indigenous content in defence products. It aimed to build domestic production capacity, reduce imports, and foster R&D collaboration between public and private sectors. However, implementation was slow, and private sector involvement remained limited.
2016
Make in India Defence Initiative
Launched as part of the broader Make in India campaign, this initiative specifically targeted defence manufacturing. It encouraged private sector participation, startups, and MSMEs, and promoted innovation through frameworks like Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX). The policy also sought to reduce import dependence and boost exports.
2017
DPP Revision 2017
The Defence Procurement Procedure was revised to give even greater priority to indigenous products. It simplified approval processes, provided preference to Indian vendors, and introduced better mechanisms for offset management (where foreign suppliers invest in India). These reforms helped speed up procurement and incentivize domestic manufacturing.
2018
Defence Production and Export Promotion Policy (DPEPP) 2018
DPEPP set ambitious targets to increase indigenous defence production to 70% and double defence exports to $5 billion by 2025. It aimed to create a robust defence industrial ecosystem, boost private sector and MSME involvement, and promote exports through government support and export incentives.
2019
Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan (Self-Reliant India Mission)
Announced amid rising global uncertainties, this mission placed self-reliance at the core of India’s defence strategy. It focused on reducing import dependency, easing technology transfers, boosting indigenous R&D, and creating a globally competitive defence manufacturing base. Several measures to fast-track approvals and enhance funding for innovation were introduced.
2020
Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020
The updated acquisition procedure further streamlined procurement processes, expanded categories of indigenous procurement, and improved transparency. It also emphasized empowering startups and MSMEs by simplifying participation rules, aiming to make defence manufacturing more inclusive and innovation-driven.
2021
Defence Production and Export Promotion Policy (DPEPP) 2.0
Building on the 2018 policy, DPEPP 2.0 reinforced incentives for defence manufacturing and exports. It focused on deepening technology development, fostering innovation ecosystems, and promoting global partnerships. The policy stressed research collaboration, increased funding for innovation, and set higher export targets.
Summary:
Before 2000: Defence procurement was import-heavy, bureaucratic, and limited to public sector dominance, with minimal private sector involvement.
Since 2001: India has progressively reformed its defence policies to promote indigenous production, ease procurement, foster private sector participation, and build a globally competitive defence ecosystem. Initiatives like Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and Defence Production Policies have been key milestones in reducing import dependency and boosting defence exports.
SMASH MAINS MOCK DROP
Operation Sindoor marks a shift from defence dependence to indigenous dominance. In this context, critically examine India’s progress in defence indigenisation. What are the structural challenges that still hinder self-reliance in defence manufacturing?
The Union Cabinet has recently approved a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme to encourage private companies to invest more in basic scientific research.
What are the aims and design of the ₹1-lakh crore RDI scheme?
Promote Private Investment in Basic Research: The scheme aims to shift the R&D funding balance by incentivising the private sector to invest in foundational scientific research, reversing the current trend where the government contributes around 70% of total R&D spending.
Special Purpose Fund under ANRF: A dedicated fund will be set up within the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which will act as a custodian of ₹1-lakh crore and offer low-interest loans to eligible research projects.
Single-Window Clearance Mechanism: ANRF is designed as an independent institutional body with oversight from the Ministry of Science, providing a streamlined funding mechanism for universities and research institutions.
Targeting Mid-Stage Innovations (TRL-4 and Above): The scheme prioritises projects at Technology Readiness Level 4 or above, focusing on research that has demonstrated lab-scale feasibility and market potential, rather than early-stage, high-risk science.
Why is ANRF’s role in research funding considered innovative?
Single-Window Clearance for R&D Funding: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) offers a unified platform to fund research across academic and industrial institutions, reducing bureaucratic delays. Eg: Instead of applying to multiple agencies like DST, DBT, and CSIR, universities can now approach ANRF for consolidated support.
Private Sector Integration in Basic Research: ANRF aims to source 70% of its budget from private players, incentivising corporate investment in long-term, foundational science rather than only market-ready products. Eg: Tech companies can fund AI or clean energy research at IITs through ANRF, blending commercial interest with academic innovation.
Bridging Academic-Industry Gaps: By acting as a funding bridge between universities, startups, and industries, ANRF fosters collaboration that accelerates the conversion of research into scalable solutions. Eg: A university developing a green hydrogen prototype can partner with a renewable energy firm under ANRFguidance and funding.
How does the TRL-4 condition affect R&D inclusivity?
Excludes Early-Stage Fundamental Research: The requirement of Technology Readiness Level-4 (TRL-4) support means only projects with demonstrated application potential are eligible. This excludes TRL-1 to TRL-3 projects, which involve basic, foundational research. Eg: A university lab studying the quantum behaviour of materials may be denied funding despite its long-term potential.
Narrows Innovation Pipeline: Focusing only on mid-to-late stage research limits the scope for high-risk, high-reward innovation, which often begins at lower TRLs. This curbs diverse and disruptive innovations from entering the ecosystem. Eg: Internet and GPS started as risky low-TRL military projects—India might miss such breakthroughs by ignoring early research.
What global lessons can India adopt to boost core innovation?
Invest in Early-Stage Research through Public Funding: Countries like the United States and Germany fund basic science heavily through institutions like the NSF and Max Planck Society, recognising that core innovation often starts at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Eg: The U.S. government’s early funding of ARPANET (precursor to the Internet) shows how foundational research can lead to transformative technologies.
Link Academia, Industry, and Government: Nations such as South Korea and Israel foster strong collaboration between universities, industries, and the state to accelerate innovation from lab to market. Eg: South Korea’s “Innovation Clusters” connect academic research with industrial application, leading to global tech giants like Samsung.
Why does brain drain persist despite new research schemes?
Limited Research Infrastructure and Bureaucracy: Many Indian institutions lack state-of-the-art labs, smooth funding access, and administrative efficiency, discouraging cutting-edge work. Eg: A 2023 study by IISc found that over 40% of PhD graduates in STEM preferred postdoctoral positions abroad due to better facilities and research environments.
Lack of Competitive Salaries and Academic Freedom: Indian researchers often face lower salaries, rigid hierarchies, and limited autonomy compared to global peers. Eg: According to a DST report, Indian scientists earn 3–4 times less than those in OECD nations, prompting talent to settle in countries like the US and Germany.
Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration: Private sector investment in R&D is low, leading to few applied research opportunities or innovation ecosystems. Eg: In South Korea, over 75% of R&D is industry-funded, whereas India’s share is just around 37%, limiting prospects for applied researchers.
Way forward:
Strengthen Research Ecosystems and Autonomy: Invest in world-class infrastructure, streamline funding mechanisms, and provide greater academic freedom to scientists and institutions to pursue innovative research without bureaucratic hurdles.
Enhance Industry Collaboration and Incentives: Foster stronger industry-academia linkages by offering tax benefits, matching grants, and innovation clusters to attract private R&D investment and create lucrative opportunities for researchers in India.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.
Linkage: The article discusses the Union Cabinet’s approval of a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme aimed at incentivizing the private sector to invest in basic research. This PYQ directly addresses the challenge of commercialization of patents in India, a critical bottleneck in the country’s innovation ecosystem that the implicitly highlights by article.
Recently, for the first time ever, the Supreme Court of India has introduced a reservation policy for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in hiring and promoting its non-judicial staff, such as assistants and attendants.
What is the importance of the Supreme Court’s internal reservation policy?
Bridges the Gap Between Principle and Practice: For decades, the Court had delivered landmark judgments on affirmative action, but hadn’t applied those standards to its own staff. Eg: Judgments like Indra Sawhney and M. Nagaraj shaped national reservation policy, but internal implementation lagged until the 2025 reform.
Promotes Social Inclusion Within the Judiciary: By providing 15% reservation for SCs and 7.5% for STs in administrative posts, the Court ensures better representation of marginalised communities within its own ecosystem. Eg: Of the 1,280 reserved posts, the majority are for junior assistants and attendants, opening real job opportunities for disadvantaged groups.
Why was the Court late in applying affirmative action to its staff?
Lack of Leadership Will: The implementation was delayed due to the absence of decisive leadership within the Court to prioritise internal reforms. Eg: It took Chief Justice B.R. Gavai, the second Dalit CJI in the Court’s history, to initiate the reform in 2025, showing how transformational leadership can overcome systemic inertia.
Contradiction Between Principle and Practice: Despite supporting reservations through judgments like Indra Sawhney and M. Nagaraj, the Court did not extend similar benefits to its own non-judicial staff until now.
Institutional Inertia and Exceptionalism: For nearly three decades since R.K. Sabharwal v State of Punjab (1995), the Court’s inaction on internal reservations reflected a reluctance to challenge status quo. Eg: While government departments and many High Courts had implemented SC/ST quotas, the Supreme Court remained an exception, showcasing negative exceptionalism despite advocating for equality externally.
How have previous rulings influenced India’s reservation system?
R.K. Sabharwal (1995): Shifted the system from vacancy-based to post-based rosters to prevent exceeding the 50% quota cap.
M. Nagaraj (2006): Upheld reservation in promotions but required data on backwardness and administrative efficiency.
Jarnail Singh (2018): Removed the need to prove backwardness again for SCs/STs already listed.
Davinder Singh (2024): Allowed sub-classification within SCs/STs, affirming substantive equality over formal equality.
Who led the push for reservation reform in the Supreme Court?
Chief Justice B.R. Gavai: Only the second Dalit CJI in history, he recognized the disconnect between the Court’s rulings and its internal practices and acted to correct it. Gavai also reportedly supports extending reservations to OBCs and other marginalized groups in the future.
What challenges lie ahead in expanding the reservation to other groups?
Legal Ambiguity: Extension of reservations to OBCs, PwDs, and others lacks clear policy frameworks and quota specifications. Eg: The July 2025 Gazette mentions new categories but no defined implementation.
Institutional Inertia: Bureaucratic delays and reluctance to change slow down the adoption of new reservation measures. Eg: It took decades after R.K. Sabharwal (1995) to implement SC/ST reservations.
Balancing Equity and Efficiency: Concerns over merit and administrative efficiency may resist expansion of affirmative action. Eg: M. Nagaraj (2006) required data on backwardness and efficiency, which may be hard to apply internally.
Way forward:
Institutionalise Inclusive Policies: Finalise and implement a comprehensive reservation framework within the Supreme Court, ensuring clarity, transparency, and consistency with government norms for SCs, STs, OBCs, PwDs, and other eligible groups.
Strengthen Monitoring and Accountability: Establish a diversity oversight mechanism within the judiciary to track representation, address grievances, and ensure timely implementation of reservation provisions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.
Linkage: The concept of “affirmative action,” which is the foundation for reservation policies in India. The Supreme Court has been instrumental in shaping the contours of affirmative action through its landmark judgments over the years.
The Ministry of Education recently released the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report, an extensive nationwide student performance assessment for Grades 3, 6, and 9.
About PARAKH:
Full Form: PARAKH stands for Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development.
Establishment: It was established in 2023 as an autonomous institution under the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT).
Vision and Role: PARAKH functions as India’s national assessment regulator, aiming to standardize school-level assessments across states and boards.
Policy Alignment: The initiative is aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which promotes competency-based, equitable, and inclusive learning.
Core Objective: Its main objective is to develop norms, standards, and guidelines for assessing learning outcomes at the national level.
Key Functions:
Standardization of Boards: PARAKH seeks to ensure equivalence in academic standards across various state and central school boards.
Assessment Focus: It designs and implements competency-based assessments, moving away from rote learning.
Progress Tracking: The unit is responsible for developing Holistic Progress Cards across the Foundational, Preparatory, Middle, and Secondary stages.
Survey Execution: It conducts Large-Scale Achievement Surveys, such as the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) (formerly known as the National Achievement Survey (NAS) launched in 2021) to track student learning outcomes at scale.
Key Highlights of the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report – 2024:
Scale of the Survey: Assessed over 21.15 lakh students from Grades 3, 6, and 9, across 74,229 schools in 781 districts.
Top performers: Punjab, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu; low-performing districts were concentrated in Meghalaya, Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh.
In Grade 3, around 60–70% of students demonstrated basic reading, vocabulary, and early math skills, though many struggled with geometry and spatial reasoning.
In Grade 6, fewer than 40% could solve real-life arithmetic problems or understand fractions, indicating gaps in conceptual understanding and application.
In Grade 9, only 28–31% applied percentages or understood number systems; less than half grasped core civic and scientific concepts such as the Constitution, biodiversity, or electricity.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF)’, which of the statements given below is/are correct?
1. Under NSQF, a learner can acquire the certification for competency only through formal learning. 2. An outcome expected from the implementation of NSQF is the mobility between vocational and general education.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.
About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)
Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
Ecological Significance: They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.
[UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *
The Quad has launched the “Quad Critical Minerals Initiative” to secure critical mineral supplies, addressing concerns over China’s price manipulation and coercive practices.
What is the Quad Critical Minerals Initiative?
Launch: The Quad Critical Minerals Initiative was launched during the second Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting held in Washington, DC.
Participants: The meeting was attended by the foreign ministers of India, the United States, Australia, and Japan.
Aim: To strengthen cooperation among Quad nations on building secure and diversified critical mineral supply chains.
Strategic Objectives:
Reduced Dependency: It seeks to reduce reliance on any single country, particularly China, for the processing and refining of critical minerals.
Risk Mitigation: The Quad statement emphasized that overdependence exposes nations to economic coercion, price manipulation, and supply chain disruption.
Need for such Initiative:
Chinese Supremacy: China dominates global mineral processing, controlling over 90% of rare earth refining, and 50–70% of lithium and cobalt refining.
Reserves Leadership: China holds the largest rare earth reserves at 44 million metric tons, far ahead of countries like India (6.9 MMT) and Australia (5.7 MMT).
Strategic Investments Abroad: China has acquired key mining assets in Africa, securing access to cobalt, lithium, and other critical minerals.
Supply Chain Leverage: With its monopolistic control, China can stall the global EV, battery, and renewable energy sectors through export restrictions.
India’s Strategy on Critical Minerals:
A. National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM)
Launch and Funding: India launched the National Critical Minerals Mission in January 2025, backed by an allocation of ₹16,300 crore.
Core Objective: The mission aims to achieve self-sufficiency in critical mineral extraction and processing, thereby reducing import dependency.
Minerals Identified: The Indian government has identified 30 critical minerals including lithium, cobalt, graphite, tin, nickel, and copper as vital for economic and energy security.
Exploration Strategy: The NCMM promotes intensive exploration within Indian territory and offshore, and pushes for a fast-tracked approval mechanism for mining projects.
Energy Transition Goal: The mission supports India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal by ensuring timely access to raw materials for clean energy systems.
B. International Cooperation – MSP and MSFN
MSP Membership: India joined the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) in June 2023, a 14-member initiative led by the United States and supported by the European Union.
Investment Facilitation: The MSP seeks to catalyse public-private investments and build shared capabilities in mining, refining, and supply chain infrastructure.
Financial Network (MSFN): India is also part of the Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN), which focuses on co-financing strategic critical mineral projects globally.
Sourcing Diversification: Through these platforms, India is expanding its cooperation with resource-rich countries like Mozambique, Madagascar, Brazil, and Tanzania.
Significance for India:
Continued Import Dependence: Despite ongoing efforts, India remains heavily dependent on China, particularly for graphite and rare earth elements.
Long Project Timelines: A 2024 IEEFA report estimates that domestic mining operations may take over a decade to start production.
Rising Demand Pressure: India’s demand for critical minerals is expected to more than double by 2030, necessitating rapid action on exploration and supply diversification.
Need for Strategic Tie-ups: To secure future needs, India must accelerate global partnerships and develop domestic value chains from mining to processing.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III
The Ministry of Coal has launched RECLAIM Framework— A Community Engagement and Development Framework for Mine Closure and Repurposing.
About the RECLAIM Framework:
Launch: The Ministry of Coal has launched the RECLAIM framework to guide inclusive and sustainable coal mine closures in India.
Developed By: The framework was developed by the Coal Controller Organisation in collaboration with the Heartfulness Institute.
Objective: It aims to ensure a just, inclusive, and locally relevant transition for communities affected by mine closures.
Inclusivity Measures: The framework places special emphasis on gender equity, the inclusion of vulnerable groups, and alignment with Panchayati Raj Institutions to enhance accountability and relevance.
Key Features of the Framework:
Guidelines: Mine closure guidelines were introduced in 2009 and revised in 2013 and 2020 to improve environmental safety and social accountability.
Community Engagement: The framework promotes community-centric planning by actively involving local stakeholders in mine closure processes.
Equity and Representation: It prioritizes the inclusion of women and marginalized groups to ensure that benefits are distributed equitably.
Institutional Convergence: RECLAIM aligns mine closure planning with existing institutional structures, especially Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governance systems.
Phased Implementation: The framework follows three phases:
Pre-Closure: Includes needs assessments and capacity building.
Closure: Involves participatory execution of closure plans.
Post-Closure: Focuses on monitoring, livelihood restoration, and asset repurposing.
Support Tools: RECLAIM is backed by field-tested tools, templates, and methodologies tailored to the Indian mining context.
Broader Impact: It supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and can be replicated in other resource-intensive sectors and states.
Challenges in Coal Mine Closure in India:
Policy–Practice Gap: Despite guidelines issued in 2009, only three coal mines have been formally closed as of 2024.
Low Compliance: Out of 299 non-operational coal mines, only eight have applied for formal closure, while the rest remain unscientifically abandoned.
Environmental Risks: Abandoned mines lead to methane emissions, ecological degradation, increased accident risks, and illegal mining.
Community Displacement: Unsustainable mining has caused unemployment and migration, reducing community engagement during closure planning.
Land Return Issues: India lacks a clear policy for returning post-mining land to original owners or communities.
Policy Gaps in Draft Bill: The 2024 Draft Coal Bearing Areas (CBA) Amendment Bill proposes land return but lacks clarity on enforcement mechanisms.
Financial Barriers: High escrow fund requirements—₹14 lakh per hectare for opencast mines—discourage mine operators from initiating closure processes.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
The coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi.
Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis.
Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.
About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):
Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.
His Contributions:
Role in Pre-Independence Politics:
He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.
Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:
He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.
Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:
After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):
In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.
Opposition to Article 370:
Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”
Legacy:
Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
Party: Its Leader
1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.
About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:
Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Key Features:
Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.
Breakthrough Discoveries:
First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
[UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:
Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland
