The PLI scheme for IT hardware was initially introduced in March 2021.
It provides incentives of over 4% for incremental investment in domestic manufacturing for eligible companies, such as Dell and Flextronics.
The scheme aims to boost domestic manufacturing, increase exports, and make India a prominent player in the IT hardware sector.
The scheme will have a tenure of six years, providing a long-term incentive for eligible companies to invest in domestic IT hardware manufacturing.
Growth in indigenous IT hardware
The government highlighted the growth of electronics manufacturing in India.
There is a 17% compound annual growth rate over the past 8 years and a production benchmark of $105 billion, including $11 billion in mobile phone exports.
New changes introduced
The budgetary outlay for the PLI scheme for IT hardware manufacturing has been set at ₹17,000 crore.
The incentive rate has been increased to 5%, offering a higher benefit to companies investing in domestic manufacturing.
An additional optional incentive has been introduced for using domestically produced components, although the specific rates of these incentives are not specified.
If the optional incentives are utilized as intended, the total incentive under the scheme could amount to 8-9%.
Achievements in Telecom hardware manufacturing
Telecom hardware manufacturing has surpassed the projected ₹900 crore and reached ₹1,600 crore.
Some Indian companies have become significant exporters of complex radio equipment worldwide.
The deteriorating state of families, marked by an increase in violence, suicides among youths, and a rise in children turning to crime, reflects the enfeeblement of the traditional family system. Studies worldwide emphasize the primacy of families in society. Addressing this crisis requires attitudinal and behavioral reforms, driven by society rather than the government.
Definition of Family
Family is defined as a social unit consisting of individuals who are connected by blood relations, marriage, or adoption.
It is a fundamental institution in society where people share emotional bonds, live together, and collaborate in various aspects of life.
The composition and structure of families can vary across cultures and may include parents, children, siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and other relatives who share mutual responsibilities and connections.
Role of The Family as a Foundational Institution of the society
Consolidation of Interpersonal Relations: The family unit is where interpersonal relationships naturally evolve and thrive. Living under one roof allows family members to share thought processes, participate in collective actions, and develop emotional bonds. These interactions foster a sense of belonging, support, and connection among family members.
Socialization and Education: Families are responsible for the socialization and education of children. Through nurturing and guidance, families shape the character, behavior, and values of individuals, preparing them for their roles in society.
Emotional Support and Stability: Families offer emotional support and serve as a source of stability in individuals’ lives. They provide a nurturing environment where love, care, and emotional well-being are nurtured.
Transmission of Cultural and Traditional Values: Families play a vital role in preserving and transmitting cultural and traditional values from one generation to the next. Through storytelling, rituals, customs, and celebrations, families ensure the continuity of cultural heritage and identity.
Economic Cooperation and Division of Labor: Families often engage in economic cooperation and division of labor, with different members contributing to the family’s economic well-being.
Social Support Network: Families serve as a primary social support network for individuals. Family members provide emotional, financial, and practical support during times of need, illness, or crisis.
Intergenerational Relationships and Caregiving: Families facilitate intergenerational relationships, creating bonds between different age groups. Families also provide care for aging or dependent family members, ensuring their well-being and dignity.
Challenges faced by family system in the context of a globalized world
Changing Social Conditions: Globalization brings about significant changes in social conditions, including urbanization, mobility, and increased connectivity. Nuclear families are becoming more common, leading to decreased intergenerational living arrangements and reduced support systems within extended families.
Individualism and Fragmentation: As people pursue their own goals and aspirations, there may be a decline in collective decision-making, shared responsibilities, and mutual support. This can weaken the bond and cohesiveness within the family unit.
Communication and Dialogue: Globalization has introduced new modes of communication and technology that can both connect and isolate individuals. While technological advancements have made communication easier, it can also lead to superficial and transactional interactions within families. Meaningful dialogue and deep connections between family members may suffer as a result.
Cultural Influences: Exposure to different cultures and values through globalization can challenge traditional family norms and practices. Western influences, in particular, can impact the traditional roles and expectations within families, leading to conflicts and tensions between generations and genders.
Work-Life Balance: Globalization has led to changes in work patterns and increased demands in the professional sphere. Balancing work and family responsibilities becomes more challenging, affecting the overall well-being of family members.
Migration and Transnational Families: Globalization has facilitated increased migration and the formation of transnational families. While migration can provide economic opportunities, it can also create challenges related to separation, long-distance relationships, cultural adjustments.
Consumerism and Materialism: The consumerist culture promoted by globalization places a greater emphasis on material possessions and individual desires. This can lead to conflicts within families regarding priorities, values, and the definition of success. Materialistic pursuits may overshadow the importance of emotional connections and shared experiences within the family.
Factors behind the rise of Individualism
Economic Prosperity: Economic growth and increased prosperity have provided individuals with greater opportunities for personal advancement and self-fulfillment. As people become more financially independent, they are able to focus on their individual goals, desires, and aspirations.
Urbanization and Mobility: The process of urbanization and increased mobility has led to a shift from close-knit rural communities to more diverse and fragmented urban settings. In urban areas, individuals have greater anonymity and independence, which can foster a sense of individualism.
Technological Advancements: The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in the areas of communication and information, has given individuals more autonomy and freedom to pursue their own interests. The internet and social media platforms, in particular, have provided platforms for self-expression and individual identity formation.
Emphasis on Personal Rights and Autonomy: There has been a growing emphasis on individual rights and personal autonomy in modern societies. Movements advocating for civil rights, gender equality, and personal freedoms have contributed to the promotion of individualism as a core value.
Cultural and Ideological Shifts: Changing cultural norms and values, influenced by globalization and exposure to diverse cultures, have contributed to the rise of individualism. The ideals of personal freedom, self-expression, and individual choice are often celebrated in media, popular culture, and social discourses.
Decline of Traditional Institutions: Traditional institutions, such as extended families, religious institutions, and community structures, have weakened in many societies. This decline has led to a greater focus on the individual as the primary unit of social organization, as opposed to collective identities and obligations.
Influence of Western Culture: The spread of Western values and ideologies, particularly through globalization and media influence, has played a significant role in promoting individualism. Western societies have historically placed a strong emphasis on individual rights, personal achievements, and self-reliance, influencing cultural attitudes towards individualism in other parts of the world.
Way ahead: Reforms for Strengthening the Family Institution
Promoting Dialogue and Communication:
Encourage open and candid conversations within families, fostering an environment of trust and understanding.
Promote regular family meetings to discuss important issues and strengthen interpersonal relationships.
Educate individuals on effective communication skills, including active listening and empathetic responses.
Balancing Individualism and Collectivism:
Emphasize the value of shared experiences, mutual support, and cooperation within families.
Encourage the practice of sharing responsibilities, decision-making, and resources among family members.
Promote activities that foster a sense of collectivism, such as family outings, collaborative projects, and joint celebrations.
Restoring Transparency and Trust:
Foster an atmosphere of honesty, transparency, and mutual respect within families.
Encourage family members to share their thoughts, feelings, and concerns openly.
Establish mechanisms for conflict resolution and mediation to address issues and rebuild trust when conflicts arise.
Cultivating Togetherness and Mentorship:
Create opportunities for family members to spend quality time together, engaging in shared hobbies, interests, or recreational activities.
Encourage mentoring relationships within families, where older members guide and support younger ones in their personal and professional development.
Promote intergenerational learning and knowledge exchange, preserving family values and traditions.
Recognizing and Empowering Mothers:
Acknowledge and appreciate the vital role of mothers in nurturing and building strong families.
Provide support systems and resources to empower women in their roles as mothers and family leaders.
Promote gender equality within families, ensuring equal opportunities, security, and respect for all members.
Strengthening Support Systems:
Develop and strengthen support networks, such as family counseling services, helplines, and community programs, to address family-related issues and provide guidance.
Enhance public awareness campaigns on the importance of family well-being and the need for nurturing healthy family relationships.
Collaborate with educational institutions, religious organizations, and community groups to promote family-oriented initiatives and activities
Conclusion
The International Day of Families serves as a reminder of the alarming state of families today, characterized by violence, suicides, and societal disruptions. Recognizing the primacy of families, it is imperative to address the enfeeblement of the traditional family system through attitudinal and behavioral reforms. The collective effort of individuals, communities, and policymakers is crucial in preserving the family institution as a fundamental unit of societal well-being.
The Chief Minister of Rajasthan recently announced the establishment of India’s first welfare fund, the Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers Social Security and Welfare Fund. This landmark move comes as a significant regulatory step to address the vulnerabilities faced by gig and platform workers since the passage of the Code on Social Security in 2020.
All you need to know about Platform-Based Gig Workers Social Security and Welfare Fund
Social security and welfare benefits to gig workers: It is the country’s first welfare fund specifically designed to address the social security needs of gig and platform workers established by the government of Rajasthan. The fund aims to provide social security benefits and welfare measures to gig workers who operate in the platform economy.
Set up in accordance with the Code on Social Security 2020: Code on Social Security recognizes the vulnerabilities faced by gig and platform workers and emphasizes the need for social security measures to protect their rights and well-being. The creation of the welfare fund aligns with the code’s objective of extending social security coverage to workers in the informal sector.
Operates as a tripartite institution: The Platform-Based Gig Workers Social Security and Welfare Fund operates as a tripartite institution, comprising representatives from the bureaucracy, employers or clients, and workers’ unions or associations. This structure enables the fund to effectively address the concerns and interests of all stakeholders involved.
Funding through revenue-sharing model: The Code on Social Security mandates that platform companies contribute 1%-2% of their revenue towards the fund, ensuring that the financial responsibility is shared between the platforms and the government.
Who are known as Gig Workers?
Gig workers are individuals who engage in temporary, flexible, and on-demand work arrangements, often facilitated through digital platforms or apps.
They are part of the gig economy, which is characterized by short-term and project-based work engagements rather than traditional long-term employment contracts.
Gig workers encompass a wide range of occupations and industries. They may include freelance writers, drivers for ride-hailing services, delivery personnel, online marketplace sellers, virtual assistants, graphic designers, and many others.
These workers typically operate as independent contractors, offering their services or completing tasks on a project-by-project basis.
Potential challenges in program implementation
Lack of Clarity in Definitions: The classification and definition of gig workers can vary, making it challenging to accurately identify and include all eligible individuals in the programs. Determining the scope and coverage of the programs can be complex, especially considering the diverse nature of gig work.
Funding Constraints: Allocating sufficient funds for the implementation of social security programs for gig workers can be a significant challenge. Adequate resources need to be allocated to ensure the sustainability of the programs and the provision of comprehensive benefits. Identifying the appropriate funding mechanisms, such as revenue-sharing models or contributions from platforms, can be complex and require careful consideration.
Limited Awareness and Outreach: Many gig workers may be unaware of their rights or the existence of social security programs available to them. Effective outreach and awareness campaigns are crucial to ensure that gig workers understand the benefits and are encouraged to participate. Language barriers, digital literacy issues, and the dispersed nature of gig workers can further complicate outreach efforts.
Adapting to Technological Platforms: Implementing social security programs within the digital platforms that facilitate gig work can pose technical challenges. Integration with existing platform systems, ensuring secure data management, and addressing potential privacy concerns require careful planning and coordination between government agencies and platform operators.
Addressing Cross-Jurisdictional Issues: Gig workers often operate across multiple jurisdictions, which can create complexities in program implementation. Coordination among different states or countries may be required to ensure seamless coverage and avoid gaps or duplications in benefits.
Establishing Fair Evaluation Criteria: Determining eligibility criteria and evaluating gig workers’ contributions or income can be challenging. Traditional methods of assessing employment status or income may not align with the dynamic and variable nature of gig work. Developing fair and transparent evaluation mechanisms is crucial to ensure that deserving gig workers receive the appropriate benefits.
Balancing Flexibility and Protection: Gig work is characterized by its flexibility, allowing workers to choose when and how much they work. Designing social security programs that provide necessary protections while still accommodating the flexible nature of gig work can be a delicate balance. Ensuring that gig workers can access benefits without compromising their work arrangements is essential.
Measures to overcome operational challenges
Comprehensive Outreach and Awareness Campaigns: Launch targeted and extensive awareness campaigns to inform gig workers about the available social security programs, their benefits, and the application process. Utilize multiple communication channels, including online platforms, mobile apps, social media, and community networks, to reach a wide range of gig workers.
Simplified Registration and Enrollment Processes: Streamline the registration and enrollment processes to make them user-friendly and accessible to gig workers. Utilize digital platforms and mobile applications to enable easy and convenient enrollment, reducing paperwork and administrative burdens.
Partnerships with Platforms: Collaborate with platform operators to facilitate program implementation. Platforms can play a crucial role in sharing information, reaching out to gig workers, and integrating social security features directly into their platforms. Establish clear guidelines and expectations for platform operators to ensure compliance and seamless integration of social security measures.
Tailored Benefit Packages: Design benefit packages that cater to the specific needs of gig workers. Consider their income volatility, irregular work schedules, and diverse occupational risks when determining the types of benefits to offer. Flexibility and customization in benefit packages can help address the unique challenges faced by gig workers.
Digital Solutions and Technology Integration: Leverage digital solutions and emerging technologies to streamline processes, enhance efficiency, and improve service delivery. Utilize digital platforms for benefits management, payment systems, and claims processing to ensure a seamless and user-friendly experience for gig workers.
Collaborative Governance: Establish tripartite partnerships involving government authorities, gig worker representatives, and platform operators to foster effective governance and decision-making. This collaborative approach ensures that the perspectives and interests of all stakeholders are taken into account and promotes transparency and accountability.
Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: Implement robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess the effectiveness and impact of social security programs for gig workers. Regularly collect feedback from gig workers, platform operators, and other stakeholders to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments to the programs.
International Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing: Engage in international collaboration and knowledge sharing to learn from best practices and experiences of other countries implementing social security measures for gig workers. Exchange ideas, strategies, and lessons learned to enhance program implementation and overcome operational challenges.
Facts for prelims
New classification by NITI Aayog: Platform vs. Non-platform Workers
The NITI Aayog report broadly classifies gig workers into platform and non-platform-based workers.
The consequent platformisation of work has given rise to a new classification of labour — platform labour — falling outside of the purview of the traditional dichotomy of formal and informal labour.
While platform workers are those whose work is based on online software applications or digital platforms.
Non-platform gig workers are generally casual wage workers and own-account workers in the conventional sectors, working part-time or full time.
Conclusion
The establishment of the Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers Welfare Board represents a significant victory for platform workers and unions who have long advocated for their rights. While many states are yet to take action, Rajasthan sets an example by prioritizing the welfare of these workers, especially with assembly elections looming next year.
A recent United Nations report revealed a startling reality that India, along with nine other nations, accounted for a staggering 60% of global maternal deaths, stillbirths, and newborn deaths. In 2020 alone, India accounted for over 17% of such fatalities, making it the country with the second-highest number of maternal deaths after Nigeria.
What is maternal mortality?
As per World Health Organization, Maternal death is the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.
Gaps in maternal Healthcare in India
Maternal mortality rate: A United Nations report highlighted that India was among the top 10 countries responsible for 60% of global maternal deaths, stillbirths, and new-born deaths. In 2020, India accounted for over 17% of such deaths, making it the second-highest contributor after Nigeria.
Antenatal care (ANC):1% of mothers in India did not attend any ANC visit during their recent pregnancy. Furthermore, only 34.1% of mothers attended one, two, or three visits, falling short of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendation of four visits.
Postnatal care: 16% of women in India did not receive any postnatal health check-ups, while 22.8% experienced delayed check-ups occurring two days after childbirth. In the poorest 20% of the households, 26.3% women never had a postnatal health check-up, whereas among the richest, only 7.9% did not.
Lack of skilled health providers: 8% of Indian women did not receive tetanus shots, which are crucial for preventing infections during and after surgery. In about 11% of cases, no skilled health providers were present at the time of delivery, posing risks in detecting and managing complications.
Decline in MMR: The Sample Registration System (SRS) 2016-2018 estimated India’s MMR at 113 per 100,000 live births. This represents a decline from previous years and indicates progress in reducing maternal deaths.
Facts for prelims
India’s maternal mortality ratio (MMR) has improved to 103 in 2017-19, from 113 in 2016-18.
Seven Indian states have very high maternal mortality. These are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha and Assam.
The MMR is ‘high’ in Punjab, Uttarakhand and West Bengal. This means 100-130 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.
It is ‘low’ in Haryana and Karnataka.
The states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar have seen the most drop in MMR.
West Bengal, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh have recorded an increase in MMR over the last survey.
Challenges in achieving further reductions in MMR in India
Regional Disparities: States with limited healthcare infrastructure and resources often report higher MMR compared to more developed regions. Bridging these regional gaps in healthcare access and quality is crucial for ensuring equitable maternal healthcare outcomes.
Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic factors play a substantial role in maternal health outcomes. Women from marginalized communities, low-income households, and rural areas face higher risks due to limited access to healthcare facilities, education, and economic resources.
Quality of Healthcare Services: The availability of skilled healthcare providers, adequate infrastructure, and essential medical supplies is lacking in many parts particularly in remote and ares.
Awareness and Education: Limited awareness among women, families, and communities about the importance of antenatal care, skilled birth attendance, and postnatal care hindering timely and appropriate care-seeking behavior.
Cultural and Social Factors: Deep-rooted cultural and social factors often influence maternal healthcare-seeking behavior and decision-making. Traditional beliefs, practices, and societal norms directly or indirectly affect women’s access to and utilization of maternal healthcare services.
Government’s initiatives to improve maternal health
National Health Mission (NHM): The NHM is a flagship program of the Government of India aimed at providing accessible and affordable healthcare services, including maternal healthcare. Under the NHM, the Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child, and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) strategy focuses on improving maternal and child health outcomes through a continuum of care approach.
Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): The JSY is a conditional cash transfer program that encourages institutional deliveries and postnatal care utilization. It provides financial assistance to pregnant women from low-income households to cover the cost of delivery and associated expenses. The program aims to reduce financial barriers and promote institutional deliveries, ensuring access to skilled birth attendants.
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): The PMMVY is a maternity benefit scheme that provides cash incentives to pregnant and lactating women for their first live birth. It aims to provide partial wage compensation to pregnant women for wage loss during childbirth and to improve maternal and newborn health outcomes.
Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK): The JSSK program ensures free and cashless delivery, including caesarean section, in public health facilities. It covers the costs of essential drugs, diagnostics, blood transfusion, and transportation for pregnant women and sick infants. The program also provides free referral transport services for pregnant women in need of emergency care.
Maternal Death Surveillance and Response (MDSR): The MDSR system is an important component of the government’s efforts to reduce maternal deaths. It focuses on identifying, reporting, and analyzing maternal deaths to understand the causes and take appropriate actions for prevention in the future.
National Iron Plus Initiative (NIPI): The NIPI focuses on addressing anemia in pregnant women by providing iron and folic acid supplements. Anemia is a significant risk factor for maternal mortality, and the NIPI aims to ensure universal coverage and adherence to iron and folic acid supplementation during pregnancy.
Skill Development Initiatives: The government has also emphasized the training and skill development of healthcare professionals, especially in the field of obstetric and neonatal care. This includes the establishment of skilled birth attendant programs, enhancing the capabilities of healthcare providers, and promoting evidence-based practices for safe deliveries and postnatal care.
Way ahead
Strengthening Healthcare Infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, especially in underserved areas, is crucial to improve access to quality maternal healthcare services. This includes ensuring the availability of skilled healthcare professionals, adequate facilities, and essential medical supplies in both urban and rural settings.
Enhancing Healthcare Workforce: Strengthening the healthcare workforce through training programs and capacity-building initiatives is essential. This involves increasing the number of skilled birth attendants, midwives, and other healthcare professionals who can provide comprehensive maternal care services.
Improving Access and Affordability: Addressing financial barriers is crucial to ensure that all women can access and afford maternal healthcare services. Enhancing the coverage and effectiveness of health insurance schemes, such as the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY), can significantly reduce out-of-pocket expenses for maternal healthcare.
Community Engagement and Awareness: Promoting community participation and awareness about maternal health is vital. Community-based programs can play a significant role in educating women, families, and community members about the importance of antenatal care, skilled birth attendance, postnatal care, and recognizing pregnancy-related complications.
Strengthening Maternal Death Surveillance and Response (MDSR): Enhancing the MDSR system can provide critical insights into the causes of maternal deaths and inform evidence-based interventions. Establishing robust systems for reporting, reviewing, and analyzing maternal deaths can help identify gaps in the healthcare system and facilitate targeted interventions to prevent future deaths.
Empowering Women and Gender Equality: Promoting gender equality and empowering women are fundamental to improving maternal health outcomes. This includes increasing access to education, economic opportunities, and decision-making power for women. Empowered women are more likely to seek and demand quality maternal healthcare services.
Collaboration and Partnerships: Collaboration between government agencies, healthcare providers, NGOs, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders is crucial. Partnerships can facilitate the sharing of resources, knowledge, and best practices to drive collective efforts toward reducing maternal mortality rates.
Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track progress and identify areas that require further attention is essential. Regular data collection, analysis, and reporting on maternal health indicators can help assess the effectiveness of interventions and inform evidence-based decision-making.
Conclusion
India’s high maternal mortality rates necessitate immediate interventions to address the gaps in ANC, PNC, awareness, and access to skilled healthcare providers. Bridging the disparities based on education, wealth, and caste is crucial for equitable maternal healthcare. It is imperative to prioritize comprehensive maternal healthcare and take urgent action to save lives and ensure the well-being of women and newborns in India.
Central Idea: A tribal council’s order not to issue a Scheduled Tribe (ST) certificate to any Khasi person who adopts the surname of her or his father has triggered a war of words in matrilineal Meghalaya.
Matrilineal Society of Meghalaya
Multiple tribes in Meghalaya, northeast India, practice matrilineal descent.
Khasi and Garo people are the primary tribes discussed in the article.
The term “Ki Hynniew Trep” (The Seven Huts) refers to the Khasi people, while the Garo people are also known as Achik people.
These tribes have a proud heritage of matrilineality, but there are concerns about the decline of matrilineal traits.
Background
Khasi people are an ancient tribe and are considered the largest surviving matrilineal culture in the world.
Khasis, along with other subgroups like the Garo, reside in Meghalaya, as well as bordering areas of Assam and Bangladesh.
The matrilineal tradition practiced by the Khasi people is unique within India.
Matrilineal principles are emphasized in myths, legends, and origin narratives of the Khasi tribe.
Reference to “Nari Rajya” in the epic Mahabharata likely correlates with the matrilineal culture of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya.
Rights, Roles and Responsibilities
Women play a dominant role in the matrilineal society of Meghalaya.
The youngest daughter, known as Ka Khadduh, inherits ancestral property.
Husbands live with their mother-in-law after marriage.
Children take their mother’s surname.
In case a couple has no daughters, they can adopt a daughter and pass property rights to her.
The birth of a girl is celebrated, and there is no social stigma associated with women remarrying or giving birth out of wedlock.
Women have the freedom to intermarry outside their tribe.
Independent, well-dressed, unmarried women enjoy security and prefer not to get married.
Many small businesses are managed by women.
Comparison between Garo and Khasi Practices
Bina Agarwal compared the Garo and Khasi practices in 1994. (Aspirants with Sociology optional are bound to remember the sociologist’s name.)
Garo also practices matrilineal inheritance and matrilocal post-marital residence.
Both tribes accept pre-marital sex by women, but adultery by women is punished.
The Khasi practice duolocal post-marital residence, where the husband lives separately from the wife’s parents’ residence.
The Khasi have an aversion to cross-cousin marriage.
Roles of Men and Political Representation
Mothers or mothers-in-law are responsible for the care of children.
Khasi men perceive themselves as having a secondary status and established societies to protect men’s rights.
Representation of women in politics, legislative assembly, village councils, and panchayats is minimal.
Women believe they handle money matters better and enjoy economic freedom.
Matrilineal, not matriarchal
While society is matrilineal, it is not matriarchal. In past monarchies of the state, the son of the youngest sister of the king inherited the throne.
Even now in the Meghalaya Legislative Assembly or village councils or panchayats the representation of women in politics is minimal.
Issues with the system
Some Khasi men perceive themselves to be accorded a secondary status.
They have established societies to protect equal rights for men.
They express that Khasi men don’t have any security, they don’t own land, they don’t run the family business and, at the same time, they are almost good for nothing.
This Spotlight is a part of our Mission Nikaalo Prelims-2023.
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17th May 2023
Agriculture, Applied Aspects
Agriculture is the science, art and practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Humans Engage in different activities to exploit natural resources and the most ancient of them are Primary activities.
Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment and some of these activities are:
Gathering and hunting:
These are the oldest economic activities known.
Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions.
It often involves primitive societies, who extract both plants and animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter and clothing.
The main features of Gathering and Hunting activities are:
Low Capital / Skill Investment
Low Yield Per Person
No Surplus in production
Gathering is practised in the following areas of the world:
Northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile (High Altitude Areas)
Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast Asia.
Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism:
Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
They move from one place to another along with their livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water, thus there is an irregular pattern of movement.
It is different from Transhumance in which there is a fixed seasonal pattern of movement.
Nomadic pastoralism is commonly practised in regions with little arable land, typically in the developing world.
Of the estimated 30–40 million nomadic pastoralists worldwide, most are found in central Asia and Northern and western regions of Africa, some parts of southern Africa and Tundra regions.
In the Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas are nomadic pastoralists who practice transhumance.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD
Commercial Livestock Rearing:
Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital-intensive activity in comparison to the Nomadic pastoralism. It is generally practised in permanent ranches.
Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported to different world markets emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the animals.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States of America are important countries where commercial livestock rearing is practised.
Ranches refers to the large stock farms, usually fenced in, where animals are bred and reared on a commercial scale. They are found especially in the United States.
Primary Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown.
Subsistence agriculture
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
This agriculture is also known as Shifting Cultivation.
It is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and Central America and south East Asia.
When the vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil, it is called slash and burn agriculture.
After sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil loses its fertility and the farmer shifts to other parts and clears other patches of the forest for cultivation.
Name
Region
Jhum
North-eastern India
Vevar and Dahiyaar
Bundelkhand Region (Madhya Pradesh)
Deepa
Bastar District (Madhya Pradesh)
Zara and Erka
Southern States
Batra
South-eastern Rajasthan
Podu
Andhra Pradesh
Kumari
Hilly Region of the Western Ghats of Kerala
Kaman, Vinga and Dhavi
Odisha
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
In this type of farming system, crops are grown mainly for local consumption. If there is a surplus, then it is sold in the market.
This type of farming is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture.
One is dominated by wet paddy and
Another is dominated by crops such as sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, maize, and vegetables.
Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming are: Tonkin Delta (Vietnam), lower Menem (Thailand); lower Irrawaddy (Myanmar); and the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta, Eastern Coastal Plains (India).
Mediterranean Agriculture
It is practised within the Mediterranean climatic region where winter is wet and summer is dry.
Farming is intensive, highly specialised and varied in the kind of crops raised.
Many crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables are raised for domestic consumption, while others like citrus fruits, olives and grapes are grown mainly for export.
That’s why this region is also called Orchard Lands of the World and it is the heart of the world’s wine industry. This region is famous around the world for the production of citrus fruits and grapes in the world.
Viticultureor grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and figs. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.
Plantation Agriculture
This type of farming has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the influence of the Europeans have been important during the colonial period.
Though practiced over a rather small area, this type of farming is quite important in terms of its commercial value.
Tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm are the major products of this type of farming. Most of the plantations were developed to provide some of the important tropical crops to the European markets.
Important plantation regions:
Tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka
Banana and sugar plantations in the West Indies
Coffee plantations in Brazil
Rubber in Malaysia
This is a highly capital-intensive farming and most of the crops are tree crops.
EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN CULTIVATION
This type of agriculture system is mainly practiced in the Eurasian steppes in regions of chernozem soil, Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plain of New Zealand.
The main characteristics of this type of agriculture are:
highly mechanized cultivation
farms are very large
predominance of wheat
low yield per acre but yield per capita is high.
MIXED FARMING
This type of agricultural system is found in the highly developed parts of the world: north-western Europe, eastern North America, Russia, Ukraine, and the temperate latitudes of parts of the southern continents.
Farming is veryintensive and sometimes highly specialized.
Traditionally, farmers have practised a mixed economy by raising animals and growing crops on the same farm.
Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.
DAIRY FARMING
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is no off season during the year as in the case of crop raising.
It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood markets for fresh milk and dairy products. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes have increased the duration of shortage of various dairy products.
MARKET GARDENING AND HORTICULTURE
It is practised mainly in the same region as that of mixed farming that consists of cultivation of vegetables, fruit and flowers solely for the urban market.
It is well-developed in the densely populated industrial districts of north-western Europe (Britain, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany) and in North-Eastern USA.
The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming. The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck farming.
FACTORY FARMING
Factory farming is a method ofmass food production in which animals are kept in very confined areas in order to get the best possible profit.
This farming is particularly concentrated in Developed countries like USA, European nations, Australia etc.
CO-OPERATIVE FARMING
A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative.
COLLECTIVE FARMING
The basic principle behind this type of farming is based onsocial ownership of the means of productionand collective labour.
Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in the erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
Yearly targets were set by the government and the produce was also sold to the state at fixed prices.
Produce in excess of the fixed amount was distributed among the members or sold in the market. The farmers had to pay taxes on the farm produce, hired machinery etc.
Members were paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by the farm management.
Exceptional work was rewarded in cash or kind. This type of farming was introduced in the former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which was adopted by the socialist countries. After its collapse, these have already been modified.
INDIAN AGRICULTURE
INTRODUCTION
India is an agricultural economy where 49% of the people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.
Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total land area of India.
In India, over 80 per cent of water is used in irrigation. Of the net sown area of around 140 million hectares (Mn ha), close to half (68.4 Mn ha) is irrigated (2019)
Major states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha among others are still majorly dependent on Agriculture.
GDP compositions in 2018-19 are as follows (ES2020)
Agriculture (16.5%)
Services (55.3%)
Industry (28.6%)
Facts/Data related to Agriculture sector
Share of agriculture and allied sectors in Gross Value Addition (GVA) has declined from 18.2 percent in 2014-15 to 16.5 percent in 2019-20.
The Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 percent in 2019-20 as compared to growth of 2.9 percent in 2018-19.
According to the 2010-11 Agricultural Census, 47% of landholdings had become less than half a hectare in size. These holdings are too small to support a family of five so that many farmers now seek alternative sources of income – NITI 3-year action agenda
About 80 percent of farmers own less than two hectare.
SALIENT FEATURES OF AN INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Subsistencetype of agriculture.
Dependent on unreliable and erratic monsoon (about 60 percent)
India’s vast relief, varying climate and soil conditions produce a variety of crops
All tropical, subtropical and temperate crops are grown across geographical areas.
Predominance of food crop → about 2/3rd of total cropped area.
Supports allied sectors and activities – cattle, poultry etc.
Major involvement of women in Indian agriculture sector
Characterized by poor mechanization, inadequate Agricultural research and extension services.
Fragmented nature of agricultural holding.
PRODUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE
Productivity of Agriculture is defined as the number of crops produced per unit land.
Productivity levels in Indian agriculture are very low as compared to the productivity levels of other countries – China, USA etc.
Like in 2018, average productivity in India was 3075 Kg/ha while world average was 3200kg/ha.
Fertiliser use, irrigation and rainfall cause significant variation in productivity
Productivity in the regions of Green revolution are certainly higher than other areas. Other high productivity regions are Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
The productivity in Gangetic plain is reducing because of Land bifurcation leading to reduced size of land holdings.
Key issues affecting agricultural productivity include the decreasing sizes of agricultural land holdings, continued dependence on the monsoon, inadequate access to irrigation, imbalanced use of soil nutrients resulting in loss of fertility of soil, uneven access to modern technology in different parts of the country, lack of access to formal agricultural credit, limited procurement of food grains by government agencies, and failure to provide remunerative prices to farmers.
Cropping Intensity
The ratio of the gross cropped area to the net sown area.
As the land is cropped multiple times, the cropping intensity increases.
It depends on factors like climate, demand of crops, availability of irrigation and other inputs etc.
CROPS
A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.
Basic facts
India produced 284.83 Mn tons of food grains in 2018.
India is the world’s largest producer of milk, pulses and jute.
India occupies a leading position in global trade of agricultural products, agricultural export basket accounts for a little over 2.15 per cent of the world agricultural trade.
Crop classification based upon the type of produce
Type
Description
Examples
Food crops
Crops used for human consumption
Cereals, i.e. grass like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional value – rice, wheat, maize. Pulses for e.g. gram tur etc.
Cash crop
Grown for sale in raw or processed form
Cotton, jute, tobacco, castor, oilseeds
Plantation crop
Grown in plantations covering large estates.
Tea, coffee, coconut, rubber, spices, etc.
Horticulture
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits (apple, mango, bananas) and vegetables (onion, tomato etc.)
Crop classification based upon climate
Tropical
Temperate
Crops grown well in hot and warm climate
Crops grown well in cool climate
e.g. rice, sugarcane, jawar
e.g. wheat, gram, potato
Crop classification based on growing season
The kharif
Season starts in June and ends in October and largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
The rabi
Season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The low temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and mustard.
Zaid
Short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done on irrigated lands. However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of the country.
Recently, The Indian government has denied that it is seeking wholesale repatriation of cultural property extracted by Britain from India during colonial times.
In this context, this edition of the Burning Issue will discuss about the Indian cultural properties aboard and their repatriation.
Background
The Indian government was reacting to a story published in the U.K.’s Telegraph newspaper and said the headline and story were “unfortunately misleading”.
Government sources said that while it was seeking the restitution of artifacts taken from India, the story was a “significant overstatement” in terms of how it portrays the government and its approach to the U.K.
It further added that its approach was to retrieve antiquities via “cooperation and partnership” and in a manner consistent with international agreements.
Issue of Cultural Property Trafficking
According to the Indian Ministry of Culture, 101 antiquities have been stolen from the subcontinent’s Centrally Protected Monuments between 2000 and 2016.
The U.S.-based alliance charted reported cultural property seizures since 2014 and found that nearly $65 million worth of illegal artifacts had been seized between 2014 and 2019.
Like any other illicit trade, the grey market of artifacts arguably seeds the ground for terrorism.
Among the world’s largest cut diamonds, the infamous Koh-i-Noor was taken by Queen Victoria after the annexation of the subcontinent.
Procedure of return
International organizations such as UNESCO and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC have been at the forefront of the fight against cultural heritage crimes. Their combined expertise and global partnerships have led to the establishment of standard-setting instruments that enhance responses to and the protection against cultural theft. The process involves the following steps:
Identification: Identify cultural properties that may have been wrongfully acquired or removed.
Legal and Ethical Considerations: Consider international conventions, national laws, and ethical guidelines pertaining to repatriation.
Collaboration and Negotiation: Collaborate and negotiate with the country of origin and the current possessor to reach an agreement.
Evidence and Documentation: Gather evidence and documentation supporting the claim for repatriation, such as historical records and provenance research.
Public Awareness and Advocacy: Raise public awareness and advocate for repatriation through campaigns and outreach efforts.
Restitution and Return: Arrange for the safe return of the cultural property to its country of origin, considering logistics and storage.
Future Preservation and Collaboration: Ensure the proper care, conservation, and display of the repatriated cultural property, and foster ongoing collaboration between the country of origin and international institutions.
International agreements
The 1970 UNESCO Convention: on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (hereafter, the 1970 Convention) mandate in the prevention of organised crime and cultural trafficking, and offer systematic tools to strengthen national capacity.
UN resolution 2347: Condemns the unlawful destruction of cultural heritage, including the destruction of religious sites and artefacts, and the looting and smuggling of cultural property from archaeological sites, museums, libraries, archives, and other sites, notably by terrorist groups.
Significance of return of cultural properties
Preserving Heritage: Cultural property acts as a bridge between the past, present, and future generations, preserving a nation’s heritage. The cultural property of a country is a testament to its history and heritage and should belong to the nation. Illicit trade and smuggling of artifacts have plagued the art and culture market of the world.
National Identity and Pride: Cultural property plays a vital role in defining a nation’s identity and fostering a sense of pride among its citizens. It symbolizes the unique values, beliefs, and customs that distinguish one nation from another. It gives people a sense of belonging and collective memory, strengthening social cohesion and unity.
Tourism and Economic Benefits: Cultural property often attracts tourists from around the world, contributing to the nation’s economy. Heritage sites, museums, cultural festivals, and artistic traditions draw visitors who spend money on accommodation, transportation, food, and souvenirs. The preservation and promotion of cultural property can generate employment opportunities and sustainable economic development. The preservation and protection of the Indian artifacts and cultural heritage are an integral component of India’s foreign policy.
Education and Research: Cultural property serves as an educational resource, offering insights into different historical periods, social structures, artistic styles, and technological advancements. It provides researchers, scholars, and students with valuable primary sources for studying various disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, history, art, and linguistics.
Cultural Diplomacy: Cultural property represents a nation’s soft power, allowing for cultural exchange and diplomacy. Exhibitions, collaborations, and cultural exchange programs enhance mutual understanding and promote positive relations between nations. Sharing cultural heritage can foster peace, tolerance, and cooperation among diverse communities globally.
Issues involved
Unlike other countries’ sources of this trade, like China, India doesn’t have heritage protection laws.
International conventions and laws are not legally binding making them toothless.
The treatment of its cultural heritage by Indian institutions as well as the religious belief of the larger part of the society brings another dimension to the narrative.
Some Previous Returns
Aiming to return antiquities allegedly stolen from their motherland, the volunteer-run India Pride Project (IPP) uses social media to identify artefacts worldwide and investigates cases coordinating authorities, global agencies, museums and a small tightly-knit curator community.
The Network found a 12th-century bronze statue of Buddha at a trade fair. Ransacked from the Archaeological Museum in Nalanda (in eastern India) in 1961 along with 14 other sculptures, the figure was later returned to India following its identification by the Association for Research into Crimes Against Art (ARCA), an organization working to preserve cultural legacies.
The Art Gallery of South Australia in Adelaide to recognize its illicit possession of a stolen 16th-century statue of Siva Nataraja and to return it following an official request from India.
In 2022, the Australian Government repatriated 29 antiquities to India. These artifacts are broadly categorized into the following themes – Shiva and his disciples, Lord Vishnu and his forms, portraits, worshipping Shakti, Jain tradition and decorative objects.
India was successful in bringing back 157 antiquities from the United States of America in 2021.
An 18th-century idol of Maa Annapurna stolen from Varanasi in 1913 was returned by Canada in November 2021.
Jagdamba Sword used by Chh. Shivaji Maharaj
Way forward
Social media, coupled with informed journalism and inclusive decision-making across governance levels, can also offer an encouraging step forward.
A key measure is the development of digital inventories and professional documentation of cultural property. Local and regional museums may benefit from augmenting their digitization capacities.
Digital imaging, which could nowadays be done via smartphone applications in numerous regional languages, can optimize the recognition of the stolen object, prevent its movement and intercept it.
The objects must also be well-documented, cataloged, and digitized to create a permanent database of the nation’s heritage. Another crucial step towards eliminating the problem is preventing the formation and expansion of illegitimate groups that harbor this trade.
Conclusion
As pointed out by UNESCO, this has also underlined the fact that illicit trade of cultural properties is not an individual problem of a country but an issue at the global level. The 1970 Convention solely will not tackle this issue, it should be the collective efforts of the governments, societies, communities, and the people to spread awareness regarding the importance of national and cultural heritage and how to safeguard them.
Preventing the expansion of illicit networks would not only prevent the exploitation of humanity’s shared heritage but also safeguard community identity.
Central Idea: The monsoon is likely to set in over Kerala with a “slight delay” on June 4, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said. The usual onset date over Kerala is June 1, within a seven-day window.
What does the “Onset of Monsoon” mean?
The onset of the monsoon over Kerala marks the beginning of the four-month, June to September southwest monsoon season over India.
It brings more than 70 per cent of the country’s annual rainfall.
It marks a significant transition in the large-scale atmospheric and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region.
The IMD announces it only after certain newly defined and measurable parameters, adopted in 2016, are met.
The onset is a significant day in India’s economic calendar.
How does IMD predict the monsoon?
Broadly, the IMD checks for the consistency of rainfall over a defined geography, its intensity, and wind speed:
Rainfall: The IMD declares the onset of the monsoon if at least 60% of 14 designated meteorological stations in Kerala and Lakshadweep record at least 2.5 mm of rain for two consecutive days at any time after May 10.
Wind field: The depth of westerlies should be upto 600 hectopascal (1 hPa is equal to 1 millibar of pressure) in the area bound by the equator to 10ºN latitude, and from longitude 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bound by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-80ºE longitude should be of the order of 15-20 knots (28-37 kph) at 925 hPa.
Heat: The INSAT-derived Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) value (a measure of the energy emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere) should be below 200 watt per sq m (wm2) in the box confined by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-75ºE latitude.
The onset is not officially declared until the prescribed conditions (above) are met.
Factors considered by IMD
The IMD uses a specialised model that forecasts the arrival dates within a four-day window.
It uses six predictors:
Minimum temperatures over northwest India
Pre-monsoon rainfall peak over south Peninsula
Outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) over the South China Sea
Lower tropospheric zonal wind over the southeast Indian Ocean
Upper tropospheric zonal wind over the east equatorial Indian Ocean, and
OLR over the southwest Pacific region
Back2Basics: Long Period Average (LPA)
The IMD predicts a “normal”, “below normal”, or “above normal” monsoon in relation to a benchmark “long period average” (LPA).
The LPA of rainfall is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc.
LPA refers to the average rainfall recorded from June to September for the entire country, the amount of rain that falls every year varies from region to region and from month to month.
The IMD’s prediction of a normal monsoon is based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period, during which India received 87 cm of rain for the entire country on average.
It has in the past calculated the LPA at 88 cm for the 1961-2010 period, and at 89 cm for the period 1951-2000.
Why LPA is needed?
The IMD records rainfall data at more than 2,400 locations and 3,500 rain-gauge stations.
Because annual rainfall can vary greatly not just from region to region and from month to month, but also from year to year within a particular region or month.
An LPA is needed to smooth out trends so that a reasonably accurate prediction can be made.
A 50-year LPA covers for large variations in either direction caused by freak years of unusually high or low rainfall, as well as for the periodic drought years.
It also takes into account the increasingly common extreme weather events caused by climate change.
Range of normal rainfall
The IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:
Normal or near normal, when the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA, that is, between 96-104% of LPA;
Below normal, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA;
Above normal, when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA;
Deficient, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA; and
Excess, when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.
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