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Subject: Art and Culture

  • “Though the great Cholas are no more yet their name is still remembered with great pride because of their highest achievements in the domain of art and architecture.” Comment.

    In the words of James Fergusson, “the Chola artists (9th-13th century CE) conceived like giants and finished like jewellers.” The Chola’s represent the zenith of Dravidian cultural expression in Indian history.

    Chola Art Achievements

    Mastery in Bronze Sculpture – Cholas perfected the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique. Eg- Iconic Nataraja (Cosmic Dancer) image symbolising rhythm of the universe.

    Dynamic Expression – Sculptures exhibit grace, movement, and spiritual symbolism. Eg- Tribhanga posture in Chola bronzes.

    Standardisation of Iconography – Cholas codified Shaiva and Vaishnava forms. Eg- Precise iconographic norms for Shiva, Parvati, Vishnu, and saints.

    Dance and Music- formalization of Bharatanatyam and the singing of Thevaram (Shaivite hymns) in a specialized musical framework.

    Literature- Often called the “Golden Age of Tamil Literature,” this era produced Kamban’s Ramavataram (Kamba Ramayanam) and the epic Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar, which documented the lives of the 63 Nayanars.

    Paintings- The inner sanctum of the Thanjavur temple contains exquisite frescoes that depict mythological scenes and the life of Rajaraja I.

    Coinage and Jewelry- Chola gold and copper coins featured the “Seated Tiger” emblem, representing their dominance.

    Chola Architecture Achievements

    Zenith of Dravidian Temple Architecture – Eg- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur by Rajaraja Chola I.

    The Concept of the ‘Vimana’- Unlike North Indian temples where the gateway (Gopuram) is tallest, the Cholas emphasized the Vimana (the tower over the sanctum). The Thanjavur Vimana stands at 216 feet, capped by an 80-ton monolithic Sikhara.

    Sculptural Ornamentation – Extensive carvings of dwarapalas, deities, and mythological figures.

    Temples functioned as centres of education, economy, art, and administration.

    Chola style became a model for later dynasties. Eg- Influence on Pandyas, Vijayanagara, and Nayaka architecture.

    Civil Engineering Works – Eg- Kallanai (Grand Anicut) for water management.

    The Great Living Chola Temples are inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, highlighting their artistic excellence.

  • Examine the main aspects of Akbar’s religious syncretism.

    Akbar’s religious policy marked a departure from orthodox Islamic statecraft, aiming to build an inclusive, stable, and composite polity in a religiously diverse empire.

    Main Aspects of Akbar’s Religious Syncretism

    Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Toleration) –

    State policy for equal treatment of all irrespective of faith. Eg- Appointment of Rajputs, Persians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims to high offices.

    Abolition of Discriminatory Taxes – Removal of Jizya (1564) and pilgrimage tax to reduce religious alienation.

    Ibadat Khana Debates (1575) – Platform for inter-religious dialogue among Muslims, Hindus, Jains, Christians, Zoroastrians.

    Mahzar (1579) – Akbar became the final arbiter in cases of theological dispute (Imam-i-Adil)

    Din-i-Ilahi (1582) – Emphasis on ethical conduct, loyalty, tolerance, not mass religion. It combined elements from various faiths

    Islam- Monotheism and the concept of a spiritual guide (Pir).

    Hinduism/Jainism- Vegetarianism and the prohibition of animal slaughter on certain days

    Zoroastrianism- Veneration of light and the Sun (Surya Namaskar).

    Respect for Non-Islamic Practices

    Ban on cow slaughter on certain days

    Patronage to Jain monks like Hiravijaya Suri.

    Akbar believed that religious conflict arose from ignorance. To bridge this, he established a Maktab Khana for translation of the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Atharvaveda into Persian.

    Adoption of Socio-Religious Traditions

    He began appearing at the Jharokha Darshan and applied the Tika on his forehead.

    Celebrated festivals like Diwali, Rakshabandhan, and Nauroz at the court.

    As Irfan Habib notes, Akbar sought “a moral basis for kingship beyond sectarian boundaries,” laying foundations for India’s composite culture.

    Post Independence India

  • ‘The sculptors filled the Chandella artform with resilient vigor and breadth of life.’ Elucidate.

    Chandella rulers (9th-13th century CE) of Bundelkhand, with Khajuraho as their capital, created a “world in stone” through sculptures marked by energy, realism, and beauty.

    Resilient vigor and breadth of life in the Chandella artform

    Dynamic Human Expression – Eg- Expressive Apsaras writing a letter, adorning themselves, removing a thorn, or gazing into a mirror (Parsvanatha temple).

    Varied Moods – Sculptures capture joy, anxiety, indolence, and self-admiration, showing psychological depth.

    Erotic Sculptures – Mithuna couples at Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva temples represent fertility, cosmic union, and continuity of life.

    Integration of sacred and secular life – Eg- Scenes of musicians, dancers, warriors, ascetics, household activities carved alongside deities.

    Dynamic Postures – tribhanga posture in Lakshmana temple apsaras conveying motion and grace

    Geographical Inspiration – Hills, rivers, and forests of Bundelkhand gave Chandella art natural vigor, with temples built like mountains and compared to the Himalayas and Kailash in inscriptions.

    Animal Vitality – Elephants at Vishvanatha temple entrance and lions, tigers, and mythical Vyala symbolize strength and vigor.

    Political Symbolism – Monumental Varaha of Yasovarman with 675 miniature figures embodies divine power and royal victory.

    Social Representation – Eg- Kings, queens, artisans, merchants, and commoners.

    Chandella artists created a universe in stone, best described by Banabhatta’s phrase “Darsit Visvarupa” – the vision of the cosmic form.

  • Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture.

    The architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Culture) represents one of the earliest examples of sophisticated, utilitarian urban planning in human history.

    Salient Features of Harappan Architecture

    Grid-Based Town Planning

    The Layout: rectangular grid system, where streets and lanes intersected at right angles, cutting the settlement into neat blocks.

    The Arteries: Main avenues were exceptionally wide, running systematically from north-to-south and east-to-west to maximize natural ventilation.

    Dual Layout: Citadel and Lower Town

    The Citadel: Built on a massive mud-brick platform to protect against seasonal flooding. It housed elite administrative or public structures. Eg- Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro and large-scale public Granaries.

    The Lower Town (Residential Zone): Located to the east, this larger, non-elevated expanse housed the common citizens, merchants, and working-class artisans.

    Uniform and Durable Building Materials

    Standardized Bricks: the Harappans pioneered the use of kiln-burnt mud bricks.

    Proportional Consistency: dimensions of the bricks followed a strict mathematical ratio of 4:2:1.

    Residential Architecture and Privacy

    Courtyard-Centric Homes: Private houses varied from small two-room units to multi-story mansions, all constructed around an open central courtyard.

    Privacy Norms: No windows opened directly onto the main thoroughfares. Main entrance doors were strategically placed in side alleys to maintain privacy.

    Advanced Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering

    The Drainage Grid: Every residential unit was connected to a highly sophisticated, gravity-assisted street drainage network.

    Maintenance Infrastructure: Channels were covered by loose, removable limestone slabs or bricks to facilitate routine desilting and cleaning operations.

    Public Infrastructure Elements

    The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): It featured changing rooms, multi-tiered steps, and an incoming clean water well system.

    Dockyard Architecture (Lothal): It features thick, reinforced baked-brick retaining embankments designed to withstand water pressure.

    Harappan architecture reflects a remarkably egalitarian, planned, and civic-minded urban civilisation, whose principles of urban planning remain relevant even today.

  • Consider the following pairs

    Consider the following pairs:
    1. Gatka a traditional marital art :Kerala
    2. Madhubani, a traditional painting :Bihar
    3. Singhwy Khababs Sindhu Darshan Festival: Jammu and Kashmir
    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched:

  • Consider the following pairs

    Consider the following pairs :
    Tribe State
    (1). Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim
    (2). Karbi : Himachal Pradesh
    (3). Dongaria Kondh : Odisha
    (4). Bonda : Tamil Nadu
    Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

  • Consider the following pairs

    Consider the following pairs:
    1. Garba : Gujarat
    2. Mohiniattam : Odisha
    3. Yakshagana : Karnataka
    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

  • Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha

    Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
    1. Avanti
    2. Gandhara
    3. Kosala
    4. Magadha
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  • Consider the following statements

    Consider the following statements:
    1. ‘Bijak’ is a composition of the teachings of Saint Dadu Dayal.
    2. The Philosophy of Pushti Marg was propounded by Madhvacharya.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  • Consider the following pairs

    Consider the following pairs :
    Place of Pilgrimage : Location
    (1) Srisailam : Nallamala Hills
    (2) Omkareshwar : Satmala Hills
    (3) Pushkar : Mahadeo Hills
    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?