Subject: Art and Culture

Why in the News

The Madhya Pradesh government has begun a push to excavate and restore monuments linked to the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, beginning with a fresh excavation of the Vaishya Tekri mound in Ujjain after a gap of almost 90 years. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) holds that a stupa larger than the Sanchi stupa may exist at the site, a claim resting on a single excavation report from 1938. That report established the mound’s scale but expressly refused to confirm the tradition linking it to Ashoka.

What is Vaishya Tekri?

1. About: It is a large mound (tekri) in Ujjain, established by excavation as the remains of a major stupa rather than a natural formation.
2. Name origin: ASI officials say the name comes from a queen of Emperor Ashoka, who came from the Vaishya or merchant community.
3. Traditional association: Ashoka is believed to have had a palace built there during his viceroyalty of Ujjain, before he became emperor.
4. Why Ujjain: Ujjain was an important city in the Mauryan world, and Ashoka was traditionally associated with it before his accession.
5. Current claim: ASI believes a stupa larger than the famous Sanchi stupa may exist at the site, and states that a deeper scientific study is needed to establish the fact.

What is a stupa?

1. About: A stupa is a hemispherical Buddhist funerary and votive monument, built over relics of the Buddha or of a revered monk, and circumambulated as an act of worship.
2. Core construction: The dome is typically a solid mass of earth, rubble or brick, faced with masonry, with no internal chamber for entry.

What is murum?

1. About: Murum is a locally available weathered rock and gravel fill, used as compacted construction material because it packs hard and drains well.
2. Use at the site: The hearting of the Vaishya Tekri stupa is made up of local blackish murum rammed hard to form the massive core.

What is a punch marked coin?

1. About: A punch marked coin is an early Indian silver or copper coin bearing symbols stamped individually with separate punches, rather than a single struck die.
2. Dating value: These coins are associated with the Mauryan and pre Mauryan periods, which is why their recovery helps date a structure.

What did the 1938 excavation record about the monument’s scale?

1. First excavation: The first excavation was carried out in 1938 and 1939 by the Archaeological Department of the erstwhile Gwalior State.
2. Where the record survives: The original report is preserved in the Annual Administration Report of the Archaeological Department, Gwalior State, for Vikram Samvat 1995, corresponding to 1938 and 1939.
3. Base diameter: The report described Vaishya Tekri as a “huge stupa”, estimating its base at approximately 350 feet in diameter.
4. Height: It estimated the height at not less than 100 feet.
5. Comparison with Sanchi: The height of the stupa at Sanchi is approximately 54 feet.
6. Core finding: The excavation established that the enormous mound was not a natural formation but the remains of a major stupa.

What construction evidence dated the structure to the Mauryan period?

1. Unconventional core: Instead of a conventional solid brick structure, the heart of the monument was made from local blackish murum, rammed hard to form the core.
2. Facing: The exterior was faced with brick masonry laid in mud mortar.
3. Largest bricks recorded: The report recorded the biggest brick as measuring about 22.5 inches by 18.5 inches by 3.75 inches.
4. Second variety: Another variety measured about 22.5 inches by 15.5 inches by 3.75 inches.
5. Dating inference: The report concluded that “the size of bricks indicates that the structure belonged to the Mauryan period (3rd century BC)”.
6. Coin evidence: The conclusion was further supported by two coins recovered during the excavation, a punch marked coin and a cast Avanti coin.

What did the excavators find in the landscape around the stupa?

1. Quarrying: The enormous quantity of murum used for the core had been quarried from the surrounding area.
2. Moat formation: The quarried areas had effectively formed a regular square moat around the stupa.
3. Gap retained: A gap was left between the moat and the monument itself.
4. Western passage: On the western side, the excavators found vestiges of a passage across the moat.
5. Purpose of the passage: The report records the passage as being for worshippers coming from the city, which was situated in that direction.

Why did the excavators call the base engineering unusual?

1. Their assessment: The report states that “an unusual and ingenious engineering device has been employed in the construction of the masonry at the bottom of this stupa”.
2. Bowl shape: This part of the masonry is built up in the shape of a bowl, which supports the superstructure.
3. Structural logic: The slanting sides resist the oblique thrust of the filling, which is wide at the bottom and narrows as it rises towards the top.
4. Significance: The device shows a solution to lateral thrust in a rammed fill core, distinct from the solid brick construction found elsewhere.

How much of the monument had already been lost by 1938?

1. Facing gone: The report records that “the facing of the stupa has all but disappeared”.
2. Plan undeterminable: It states that it is not possible from what survived to determine the exact plan and elevation of the stupa.
3. Truncated height: The existing altitude is slightly less in proportion to its base than other stupas of the period.
4. Explanation offered: The report attributes this to the fact that the top has been washed away, indicating the monument was originally taller.

Why does the link with Ashoka remain unproven?

1. Tradition rejected on the palace: The first archaeologists who excavated the site opined that “excavations do not bear out the tradition” of an Ashokan palace at the spot.
2. Qualified claim on the stupa: They considered a possible connection with Ashoka but stopped short of an established fact, recording only that “it is possible that the stupa is one of the many which Asoka is said to have built”.
3. Evidence gap: The dating rests on brick dimensions and two coins, which place the period but not the patron.
4. Present position: ASI states that a deeper scientific study is required before the claim of a stupa larger than Sanchi can be established.

What must be settled before the fresh excavation can begin?

1. Proposal pending: The ASI Superintending Archaeologist for Bhopal has stated that a proposal has been sent to the Director General, ASI, for excavation of the site.
2. Land acquisition: The Ujjain district administration has sent a proposal to acquire the surrounding private land for Rs 40 crore for the excavation to begin at all.
3. Timeline: Excavation will take at least three years to yield meaningful results, and may take several more years for completion.
4. Restoration burden: Restoring the stupa is described as another monumental task, with the stated objective of restoring it without inflicting any damage to the site.
5. Political impetus: The project follows an expressed interest by the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh in speeding up excavation and restoration, the site falling within his constituency of Ujjain.

Challenges to the Vaishya Tekri excavation and restoration

1. Site ownership before science: Excavation cannot start until private land around the mound is acquired, which converts an archaeological question into a land cost question. e.g. the Rs 40 crore acquisition proposal sent by the Ujjain district administration.
2. Loss of the original surface: With the facing gone, the plan and elevation cannot be recovered, so restoration risks becoming conjectural reconstruction. e.g. the report’s own finding that the exact plan and elevation could not be determined in 1938.
3. Rebuilding versus conserving: Restoring a stupa invites reconstruction that erases the evidence of its later history. e.g. the criticism of heavy handed reconstruction at several protected monuments following the Venice Charter principle of minimum intervention.
4. Scientific dating capacity: Brick size and two coins fix a period loosely, and confirming a Mauryan date needs laboratory dating that Indian archaeology has limited access to. e.g. the prolonged dispute over the dating of the Keeladi excavation report in Tamil Nadu.
5. Excavation manpower: ASI’s excavation branches handle a very small number of digs each year against a very large protected inventory. e.g. only a handful of ASI excavations are licensed annually against more than 3,600 centrally protected monuments.
6. Urban encroachment on the mound: A large mound inside a growing pilgrimage city faces construction pressure on all sides. e.g. Ujjain’s expansion around the Mahakaleshwar corridor redevelopment.
7. Post excavation neglect: Trenches left open after a season deteriorate rapidly in monsoon conditions. e.g. exposed structures at several excavated sites eroded before conservation cover was provided.

Conclusion

The 1938 record establishes a very large Mauryan period stupa at Vaishya Tekri, with a 350 foot base, a rammed murum core, oversized bricks, a square quarried moat and a bowl shaped masonry base, while refusing to confirm the Ashokan tradition attached to the site. The fresh excavation therefore has to settle by evidence what the earlier report left open. The immediate next step is approval of the proposal by the Director General of ASI and the acquisition of the surrounding private land.

Stupa Architecture in India

1. About: The stupa is the earliest surviving form of Buddhist architecture in India, developed from pre Buddhist burial mounds and elaborated into a monumental ritual structure.
2. Core elements: The anda is the hemispherical dome, the harmika is the railed square above it, the chhatra is the tiered umbrella mast, the medhi is the raised drum, the vedika is the enclosing railing and the pradakshina patha is the circumambulatory path.
3. Toranas: Ornamented gateways placed at the four cardinal directions, carrying narrative relief sculpture of the Jataka tales and events from the Buddha’s life.
4. Ashokan expansion: Ashoka is traditionally credited with redistributing the Buddha’s relics and building a very large number of stupas across the empire in the third century BCE.
5. Major examples: Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in the lower Krishna valley, Dhamek at Sarnath, Kesariya in Bihar and Bhattiprolu in Andhra Pradesh.
6. Regional schools: The Amaravati school worked in white limestone with slender, animated figures, distinct from the Gandhara and Mathura schools.

Constitutional Framework Governing Monuments and Heritage

1. Article 49: Obliges the State to protect every monument or place of artistic or historic interest declared to be of national importance from spoliation, disfigurement, destruction, removal, disposal or export.
2. Article 51A(f): Places a Fundamental Duty on every citizen to value and preserve the rich heritage of the country’s composite culture.
3. Seventh Schedule, Union List Entry 67: Ancient and historical monuments and records, and archaeological sites, declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance.
4. Seventh Schedule, State List Entry 12: Libraries, museums and other similar institutions, and ancient and historical monuments other than those of national importance.
5. Seventh Schedule, Concurrent List Entry 40: Archaeological sites and remains other than those declared of national importance.

Laws and Rules Governing Monuments and Antiquities

1. Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904: The first comprehensive colonial statute for protection of monuments, control of traffic in antiquities and preservation of sculptures.
2. Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958: The governing statute for centrally protected monuments, regulating excavation, conservation and access.
3. Declaration of national importance brings a monument under ASI control and restricts its use and alteration.
4. AMASR (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010: Created the prohibited area of 100 metres and the regulated area of a further 200 metres around a protected monument, and set up the National Monuments Authority.
5. AMASR (Amendment) Act, 2017: Permitted certain public works in prohibited areas subject to clearance, which drew criticism for diluting the buffer.
6. Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972: Regulates export of antiquities, requires registration of specified antiquities and prohibits their export without licence.
7. Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878: Governs ownership of buried treasure found in the ground and the duty to report such finds.

Back2Basics: Sanchi Stupa

1. Location: Sanchi, in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, on a hilltop near the Betwa river, about 46 km from Bhopal.
2. Origin: The Great Stupa, Stupa No. 1, was originally commissioned by Ashoka in the third century BCE over relics of the Buddha.
3. Later enlargement: The original brick stupa was encased in stone and roughly doubled in size in the Shunga period, with the railing and terraces added then.
4. Gateways: The four richly carved toranas were added under the Satavahanas in the first century BCE.
5. Height: The stupa stands at approximately 54 feet.
6. Associated remains: The site carries an Ashokan pillar with the Schism Edict, Stupa 2 and Stupa 3, monasteries and a fifth century Gupta temple.
7. Recognition: Inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1989 as the Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi.
8. Distinction: Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India and carries no image of the Buddha in human form in its earliest reliefs, using symbols instead.

Government Initiatives

1. Adopt a Heritage 2.0: Invites public sector and private entities as Monument Mitras to develop and maintain amenities at protected monuments under a formal agreement.
2. National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities: Creates a national database and documentation of built heritage, sites and antiquarian remains.
3. PRASHAD Scheme: The Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual Augmentation Drive, funding infrastructure at identified pilgrimage and heritage destinations.
4. Swadesh Darshan 2.0: Develops thematic tourism circuits, including the Buddhist Circuit, linking Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar and other sites.
5. HRIDAY: The National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana, for planned development of heritage cities including Ujjain.
6. Indian Culture Portal and Indian Heritage in Digital Space: Digitise manuscripts, museum collections and monuments for public access.

Key Facts about the Archaeological Survey of India

1. Founded: 1861, with Alexander Cunningham as its first Director General.
2. Parent ministry: It functions as an attached office of the Ministry of Culture.
3. Mandate: Archaeological research, protection of monuments of national importance, excavation licensing and regulation of antiquities.
4. Protected inventory: ASI maintains more than 3,600 monuments of national importance across the country.
5. World Heritage: India carries 44 UNESCO World Heritage Sites as of 2025, of which the large majority are cultural properties.
6. Observances: World Heritage Day is observed on 18 April and World Heritage Week from 19 to 25 November.
7. Structure: ASI works through regional Circles, with excavation branches and a science branch for conservation chemistry.

Challenges in Heritage Conservation and Archaeological Excavation in India

1. Untraced and encroached monuments: Protected monuments are lost to encroachment and record failure. e.g. a Comptroller and Auditor General report in 2013 found at least 92 centrally protected monuments untraceable.
2. Buffer zone dilution: Construction pressure erodes the prohibited and regulated area around monuments. e.g. the criticism of the AMASR Amendment Act, 2017 for allowing public works within the 100 metre prohibited zone.
3. Pollution and environmental damage: Industrial and vehicular emissions discolour and corrode stone surfaces. e.g. the Supreme Court’s repeated directions on the discolouration of the Taj Mahal and the creation of the Taj Trapezium Zone.
4. Manpower and funding shortfall: ASI runs a very small technical cadre against a very large inventory, so most sites get no active conservation. e.g. only a handful of excavations are licensed each year against more than 3,600 protected monuments.
5. Illicit antiquities trade: Idols and sculptures are removed from unguarded temples and sites and enter the international market. e.g. the recovery and repatriation of Indian idols traced to the Subhash Kapoor smuggling network.
6. Dating and laboratory capacity: Scientific dating facilities are limited, so chronology disputes remain unresolved for years. e.g. the extended controversy over the dating report of the Keeladi excavation in Tamil Nadu.
7. Development versus site integrity: Infrastructure and corridor projects run through or beside heritage precincts. e.g. redevelopment corridors around major temple towns altering the setting of protected structures.
8. Climate and disaster exposure: Floods, cyclones and coastal erosion damage unprotected structures. e.g. damage to heritage structures during the 2018 Kerala floods.

Way Forward

1. Complete site acquisition before excavation: Secure statutory control of the land envelope so a dig is not suspended midway by ownership disputes.
2. Adopt minimum intervention restoration: Stabilise and conserve the surviving fabric rather than reconstruct a conjectural elevation where the plan is undeterminable.
3. Deploy non invasive survey first: Use ground penetrating radar, magnetometry and lidar to map the buried structure before trenching.
4. Expand scientific dating facilities: Fund accelerator mass spectrometry and thermoluminescence laboratories so chronology rests on measurement rather than brick size alone.
5. Publish excavation reports on a fixed timeline: Make report publication a condition of the excavation licence to prevent decades long gaps in the record.
6. Strengthen the National Monuments Authority: Complete site specific heritage bylaws for protected monuments so construction control is rule based.
7. Involve local communities and institutions: Use Monument Mitras, university departments and local museums to sustain site upkeep and interpretation after the dig ends.

Matching Previous Year Question

“[2026] Which of the following statements on the Amaravati Stupa and its relief sculpture is/are correct?
1. It was located in the lower Krishna valley.
2. In India, it was next only to the Sanchi Stupa in size.
3. The Amaravati school of sculpture made a lasting impact on the later South Indian sculpture, and its products were carried to Sri Lanka and South-east Asia.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b)”