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Subject: Bilateral Relations

1. Major World Events
2. India’s Interests in neighbourhood
3. Effects of our Policies

  • The ‘Great Abandonment’ of Afghanistan

    Why in the News?

    The U.S. and Europe have stepped back from Afghanistan’s issues, and India should be concerned about losing influence among Afghans.

    What are the key reasons behind India’s shift in its engagement policy with the Taliban government in Afghanistan?

    • Geopolitical Realism and Regional Stability: India recognises that the Taliban regime is a reality and is engaging pragmatically to safeguard its interests.Example: India reopened its “technical mission” in Kabul (2022) to oversee humanitarian aid and maintain limited diplomatic channels.
    • Countering Pakistan and China’s Influence: Pakistan and China have deepened their engagement with the Taliban, influencing Afghanistan’s policies. Example: China signed agreements with the Taliban on infrastructure and rare earth mining, pushing India to maintain a strategic foothold.
    • Security Concerns and Terrorism Threats: Engagement allows India to monitor Taliban factions and ensure they do not support anti-India terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). Example: India’s quiet diplomacy with Taliban leaders like Sher Abbas Stanekzai helps in intelligence-sharing on terrorist threats.
    • Economic and Infrastructure Interests: India has invested over $3 billion in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and Zaranj-Delaram Highway. Example: Talks on reviving Chabahar port connectivity and resuming development projects indicate India’s strategic economic interests.
    • Humanitarian Assistance and People-to-People Ties: India’s aid and engagement help maintain goodwill among Afghan citizens, which could be useful in the long run. Example: India has sent 50,000 metric tonnes of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan despite diplomatic tensions.

    Why is India hesitant to provide visas to Afghan refugees?  

    • Security Concerns and Risk of Infiltration: India fears that some refugees could have ties to terrorist groups like the Haqqani Network, LeT, or JeM, posing a national security risk. Example: Indian intelligence agencies raised concerns that Taliban-linked elements could exploit the visa process for entry.
    • Political and Ideological Considerations: The government is cautious about allowing large-scale migration of Afghan refugees, aligning with its broader immigration policy.Example: India has prioritized granting visas to Hindus and Sikhs from Afghanistan while restricting others.
    • Lack of a Comprehensive Refugee Policy: India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, and its refugee policies are ad hoc and politically driven. Example: Unlike Germany or Canada, India lacks a legal framework for recognizing and resettling Afghan refugees.
    • Diplomatic Calculations and Taliban Relations: India does not want to openly oppose the Taliban by granting asylum to its critics, as it seeks to maintain diplomatic engagement with the regime. Example: Unlike during the Northern Alliance era, India has not offered safe passage to anti-Taliban leaders.
    • Economic and Logistical Constraints: Providing visas and long-term support for a large refugee influx would require financial and administrative resources that India is reluctant to allocate. Example: During the 2021 Taliban takeover, thousands of Afghans, including students and former Indian allies, applied for emergency visas, but only a small fraction were granted entry.

    How can India balance its strategic interests in Afghanistan while ensuring support for Afghan civil society and opposition groups?

    • Dual Engagement Strategy: India should maintain diplomatic ties with the Taliban government for security and economic interests while also engaging with Afghan opposition groups and civil society. Example: India’s past engagement with the Northern Alliance in the 1990s, alongside its outreach to the Afghan Republic (2001-2021), showcases a balanced approach.
    • Humanitarian and Development Aid: Continuing humanitarian assistance such as food, medical supplies, and education programs can support Afghan civilians without directly endorsing the Taliban. Example: India has provided wheat, vaccines, and essential medicines to Afghanistan through international organizations like the UN.
    • Support for Afghan Refugees and Students: Granting visas and scholarships to Afghan students, women, and activists can help sustain Afghanistan’s civil society and ensure long-term goodwill. Example: India’s ICCR scholarship program for Afghan students helped many pursue higher education in India before 2021.
    • Leveraging Regional and International Partnerships: Engaging with like-minded countries (e.g., Iran, Russia, Central Asian nations) and multilateral forums (e.g., UN, SCO) to ensure a collective approach toward Afghan stability. Example: India’s participation in the Moscow Format Talks and its collaboration with Iran on the Chabahar port for trade connectivity.
    • Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Hosting Afghan cultural events, supporting Afghan media in exile, and fostering connections between Afghan intellectuals and Indian institutions can preserve historical ties. Example: India has previously hosted Afghan leaders and artists, maintaining its soft power influence despite regime changes.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Strategic and Humanitarian Engagement: India should expand its humanitarian assistance through trusted international organizations while exploring avenues for economic cooperation that align with its security interests.
    • Institutionalizing a Long-Term Afghanistan Policy: India should formulate a structured Afghanistan policy that balances security, economic, and humanitarian interests while ensuring protection for Afghan civil society.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition. (UPSC 2024)

    Reason: The demand of the question directly linked with the “why India’s relations with its neighbors are crucial for regional stability and its own security” for example the situation in Afghanistan after the “Great Abandonment” affects stability in the region, and India’s approach to its neighbors should be understood in this larger context.

  • China ties — beware conciliation without deterrence 

    Why in the News?

    India is adopting a conciliatory approach towards China, with improving ties since the 2020 border clashes.

    Why has India adopted a more conciliatory stance towards China in recent months?

    • De-escalation of Border Tensions: India and China have gradually disengaged from multiple friction points along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) since the 2020 Galwan clashes. Example: In October 2023, both sides agreed to withdraw troops from the last two major standoff points in eastern Ladakh.
    • Economic Considerations: China remains India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching record levels despite political tensions. Example: In 2023, India’s imports from China exceeded $100 billion, highlighting the economic interdependence.
    • Strategic Uncertainty in U.S. Policy: With the U.S. showing unpredictability under the Trump administration, India may seek to hedge its bets by stabilizing ties with China. Example: Trump’s reluctance to support Ukraine and potential shifts in U.S. Asia policy raise concerns about long-term American commitments.
    • Focus on Domestic Growth and Development: India aims to maintain economic stability and avoid prolonged military confrontations that could divert resources from development. Example: Infrastructure projects like “Make in India” and semiconductor manufacturing require a stable geopolitical environment.
    • Maintaining Diplomatic Leverage: A balanced approach allows India to engage with multiple global powers while keeping strategic options open. Example: While signaling reconciliation with China, India continues military exercises with the Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia) to maintain leverage.

    How does the shifting U.S. foreign policy under the Trump administration impact India’s strategic choices regarding China?

    • Uncertainty Over U.S. Security Commitments: Trump’s ambiguous stance on global security, including reduced support for Ukraine, raises doubts about America’s reliability in countering China’s aggression. Example: The U.S. halted intelligence sharing on Russian missile threats to Ukraine, signaling potential unpredictability in military alliances.
    • Possibility of a U.S.-China Grand Bargain: Trump’s transactional diplomacy suggests he may prioritize economic deals with China over strategic containment, potentially sidelining India’s concerns. Example: His approach to Russia—offering compromises for economic gains—hints at a similar possibility with China, affecting Indo-U.S. strategic alignment.
    • Pressure on India to Strengthen Self-Reliance: With the U.S. potentially scaling back its role in Asia, India must enhance its military capabilities and deepen partnerships with other allies. Example: India has intensified defense cooperation with Japan, Australia, and France while increasing indigenous military production (e.g., Tejas fighter jets, submarine projects).

    What military limitations has India faced in recent years despite rising security challenges?

    • Delayed Modernization and Declining Defense Budget: India’s defense spending as a share of GDP has steadily declined over the past decade, limiting critical investments in military modernization. Example: The Indian Air Force still operates outdated MiG-21 fighters, with delays in acquiring Rafale jets and indigenous Tejas aircraft.
    • Slow Progress in Indigenous Defense Manufacturing: Despite initiatives like Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), India remains dependent on foreign arms suppliers, leading to procurement delays. Example: The Project 75I submarine program has seen repeated delays, affecting the Navy’s ability to counter China’s growing maritime presence.
    • Limited Military Buildup Despite Border Tensions: After the 2020 Ladakh standoff, India disengaged from key incursion sites but did not significantly increase troop deployments or infrastructure in vulnerable areas. Example: While China rapidly built roads, bridges, and airstrips near the Line of Actual Control (LAC), India’s infrastructure development in border areas has lagged.

    Who are India’s key partners in military cooperation? 

    • United States (U.S.): India and the U.S. have strengthened defense ties through agreements like COMCASA, BECA, and LEMOA, facilitating intelligence sharing and logistics support. Example: India participates in the Malabar naval exercise with the U.S., enhancing interoperability in the Indo-Pacific region.
    • Russia: Russia remains a key defense supplier, providing advanced weaponry, including fighter jets, submarines, and missile systems. Example: India procured the S-400 air defense system from Russia despite U.S. pressure and CAATSA sanctions concerns.
    • France: France is a crucial partner in aerospace and naval defense cooperation, supplying high-end military equipment. Example: India acquired Rafale fighter jets from France and is collaborating on Scorpene-class submarines under Project 75.
    • Israel: India-Israel defense ties focus on advanced technology, particularly in missile defense, drones, and cyber warfare. Example: India procured Barak-8 missile defense systems and Heron UAVs from Israel for border security.
    • Quad Partners (Japan & Australia): India’s partnerships with Japan and Australia focus on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and defense exercises. Example: The India-Japan 2+2 ministerial dialogue and AUSINDEX naval exercise with Australia boost strategic ties in the Indo-Pacific.

    How can operational coordination help strengthen India’s strategic position? (Way forward)

    • Enhanced Interoperability with Allies: Regular joint exercises improve coordination between India and its military partners, ensuring seamless cooperation in real-world conflicts. Example: The Malabar Naval Exercise with the U.S., Japan, and Australia enhances India’s naval capabilities in the Indo-Pacific.
    • Force Multiplication through Intelligence Sharing: Coordinated intelligence sharing provides India with real-time situational awareness, helping in threat assessment and strategic planning. Example: BECA agreement with the U.S. enables India to access geospatial intelligence, improving precision targeting and surveillance.
    • Deterrence Against Aggression: Strengthened operational coordination signals military preparedness, discouraging adversaries from engaging in aggressive actions. Example: Joint patrols with France in the Indian Ocean demonstrate India’s extended reach and deterrence capabilities.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: ‘The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (UPSC 2024)

    Reason: This question directly addresses the strategic implications of China’s rise and India’s potential role in countering it, which is relevant to the theme of deterrence.

  • New Delhi’s perilous recalibration with the Taliban

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister of India may allow the Taliban regime to appoint a new envoy for its embassy in New Delhi.

    What are the key reasons behind India’s increasing engagement with the Taliban despite international concerns?

    • Strategic Influence in Afghanistan: India aims to maintain a presence in Afghanistan to safeguard its long-term geopolitical interests.Example: India reopened its embassy in Kabul in June 2022, ensuring diplomatic engagement.
    • Countering Pakistan’s Diminishing Influence: As Taliban-Pakistan relations sour, India sees an opportunity to reduce Islamabad’s sway over Kabul. Example: The Taliban’s refusal to act against Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has strained ties with Pakistan, creating space for India.
    • Competing with China’s Expanding Role: China has accepted a Taliban envoy and is integrating Afghanistan into the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: China became the first country to accept a Taliban-appointed ambassador in 2023, prompting India to reconsider its approach.
    • Ensuring Regional Security and Counterterrorism: A stable Afghanistan is crucial to preventing it from becoming a hub for anti-India terror groups. Example: India seeks Taliban cooperation in curbing ISIS-K and groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) that threaten Indian interests.
    • Economic and Humanitarian Interests: Engaging with the Taliban allows India to continue developmental projects and provide humanitarian aid. Example: India has sent multiple consignments of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan under humanitarian assistance programs.

    Why is the recognition of a Taliban envoy in India considered a significant shift in diplomatic policy?

    • De Facto Recognition of the Taliban Regime: Accepting a Taliban-appointed envoy would signal India’s indirect recognition of the regime, despite its lack of international legitimacy. Example: Most countries, including the U.S. and EU members, have refused to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations.
    • Departure from India’s Traditional Stand on Terrorism: India has consistently opposed regimes that support terrorism. Engaging with the Taliban contradicts its long-standing stance. Example: India had previously refused to engage with the Taliban, citing its ties to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).
    • Contradiction with India’s Human Rights Advocacy: The Taliban’s treatment of women and minorities has been widely condemned, and recognizing its envoy could weaken India’s credibility as a human rights advocate. Example: The UN has termed the Taliban’s policies as “gender apartheid,” which contradicts India’s global image as a democratic and inclusive nation.
    • Impact on Relations with Western Allies: Closer engagement with the Taliban may strain India’s relations with countries that have imposed sanctions on the Taliban. Example: The U.S. and European nations continue to restrict diplomatic ties and financial transactions with Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.
    • Risk of Setting a Precedent for Other Unrecognized Regimes: Accepting a Taliban envoy might encourage other unrecognized regimes to seek similar diplomatic treatment, complicating India’s foreign policy. Example: It could open debates on whether India should engage similarly with other disputed governments, such as Myanmar’s military junta.

    What are the major risks for India in engaging with the Taliban?

    • Security Threats and Terrorism: The Taliban’s ties with terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) pose a direct threat to India’s national security. Example: The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was linked to JeM, which has operated from Taliban-controlled areas in the past.
    • Growing Influence of the Islamic State (IS): The Islamic State-Khorasan Province (IS-K) has been expanding in Afghanistan, carrying out attacks even against the Taliban and its allies. Example: IS-K’s attack on the Moscow Crocus City Hall in 2024 and the bombing of a Kabul hotel housing Chinese nationals show Afghanistan’s instability.
    • Potential Diplomatic Backlash: Engaging with the Taliban could harm India’s relations with key allies like the U.S. and the EU, which refuse to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations. Example: The U.S. and European nations maintain economic sanctions on Afghanistan, and aligning too closely with the Taliban could attract criticism.
    • Destabilization of India’s Western Borders: The Taliban’s alleged support for Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has worsened Pakistan’s security situation, and any spillover could affect India. Example: TTP claimed 147 attacks in Pakistan in February 2024 alone, and instability in the region could have consequences for India’s border security.
    • Economic and Infrastructure Investment Risks: Any investments India makes in Afghanistan may not be secure due to the Taliban’s unstable governance and lack of financial transparency. Example: India’s $3 billion investments in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and the Afghan Parliament, remain uncertain under Taliban rule.

    Way forward: 

    • Strategic, Conditional Engagement: India should engage with the Taliban on a case-by-case basis, ensuring its security interests are safeguarded while avoiding full diplomatic recognition. Example: Continuing humanitarian aid and infrastructure projects without legitimizing Taliban rule.
    • Regional and Multilateral Cooperation: India should collaborate with regional partners like Iran, Russia, and Central Asian states to ensure stability in Afghanistan while maintaining ties with Western allies. Example: Strengthening mechanisms like the Moscow Format Talks and UN-led initiatives to balance engagement and counter-terrorism efforts.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics.(UPSC IAS/2024)

    Reason: India’s engagement with CARs is influenced by the situation in Afghanistan and the wider regional security scenario involving the Taliban.

  • India, New Zealand resume trade deal talks after decade

    Why in the News?

    After nearly 10 years, India and New Zealand have resumed talks on a free trade agreement (FTA) to strengthen economic relations.

    What is the main objective of resuming India-New Zealand FTA negotiations?

    • Enhancing Market Access & Trade Growth: The FTA aims to expand trade opportunities by reducing tariffs and trade barriers. Example: Bilateral trade surpassed USD 1 billion (April-January 2025), highlighting the potential for further growth.
    • Strengthening Supply Chain Integration: The agreement seeks to improve logistics and supply chain efficiency between the two countries. Example: New Zealand’s dairy and agricultural products could find structured entry into India, while India’s IT and pharmaceutical sectors could benefit from easier access to the New Zealand market.
    • Boosting Investment & Business Opportunities: The FTA will help attract investments and foster job creation in sectors like IT, services, and agriculture. Example: India seeks better mobility for skilled professionals, benefiting industries like software services and engineering.

    Why did the India-New Zealand trade talks stall in 2015?

    • Disagreements Over Dairy Market Access: New Zealand demanded greater access to India’s dairy market, but India resisted to protect its millions of dairy farmers. Example: India’s dairy imports from New Zealand were minimal (~$0.57 million), and India remained firm against allowing raw dairy imports.
    • Tariff Reduction Challenges: New Zealand had a low average tariff of 2.3%, while India had a higher average tariff of 17.8%, making tariff reductions challenging. Example: India was reluctant to lower tariffs on New Zealand’s dairy, meat, and wine exports, fearing a negative impact on domestic industries.
    • Limited Gains for India in Goods Trade: Since New Zealand already had low tariffs and duty-free access for many goods, India saw fewer advantages in an FTA. Example: Indian exports such as textiles, apparel, and pharmaceuticals already had significant access to the New Zealand market.
    • Concerns Over Skilled Labor Mobility: India wanted easier movement of skilled professionals in IT and services, but New Zealand was hesitant. Example: India sought better visa provisions for IT and engineering professionals, which faced resistance.
    • External Trade Pressures: India faced pressure from other countries like the U.S. to open its dairy and agricultural sectors, complicating negotiations. Example: Allowing New Zealand’s dairy products could have set a precedent for other trade partners demanding similar concessions.

    How does the tariff disparity between India and New Zealand pose a challenge to the negotiations?

    • Significant Difference in Average Tariff Rates: New Zealand’s average import tariff is only 2.3%, with over half of its tariff lines duty-free, while India’s average tariff stands at 17.8%. Example: Indian goods already have substantial access to the New Zealand market, making a traditional FTA less beneficial for India.
    • Limited Market Access Gains for India: Since New Zealand already imposes low or no tariffs on many products, India’s exporters may not gain significant new access. Example: Sectors like textiles, pharmaceuticals, and auto components already enter New Zealand with minimal restrictions, reducing the FTA’s potential benefits for India.
    • Pressure on India to Lower Tariffs on Sensitive Sectors: New Zealand is pushing for tariff reductions on dairy, meat, and wine exports, but India is reluctant to protect domestic farmers and industries. Example: India’s dairy sector supports millions of small farmers, making it difficult to allow imports that could undercut local production.
    • Imbalance in Reciprocal Concessions: If India significantly lowers its tariffs, New Zealand would gain more than India, creating an imbalance in trade benefits. Example: India would have to make greater tariff cuts, while New Zealand’s market access would remain largely unchanged.
    • Potential Precedent for Other Trade Partners: If India agrees to major tariff cuts for New Zealand, other countries in future FTAs may demand similar concessions, complicating trade policy. Example: Countries like Australia, the EU, and the U.S. could push India to open up its agriculture and dairy sectors, which India has traditionally protected.

    Way forward: 

    • Balanced Trade Concessions & Sectoral Safeguards: India and New Zealand should explore sector-specific agreements rather than blanket tariff reductions. Example: India can allow limited access to value-added dairy products while ensuring safeguards for domestic farmers. Similarly, New Zealand can offer better terms for India’s IT and services sector.
    • Enhanced Collaboration in Non-Tariff Areas: Both nations should focus on investment facilitation, technology exchange, and regulatory cooperation to maximize mutual benefits beyond tariff cuts. Example: Joint ventures in agritech, renewable energy, and pharmaceuticals can create new trade opportunities without tariff-related conflicts.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics. (2024)

    Reason:  It highlights the importance of analyzing India’s evolving economic relations with other regions, which is similar to the context of resuming talks with New Zealand.

  • [15th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Modern day summitry, its perils and its prospects

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)  The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (2023)

    Mentor’s Comment: This question focused on India’s strategic positioning and alliances with the West, relates to the broader context of high-level summit diplomacy and strategic interactions between nations

    A strong leader is often seen as someone who holds significant power, shaping both government policies and their political party. This leadership style is debated, but many agree it can be useful in politics and diplomacy. Leaders like Donald Trump and Narendra Modi are considered strong leaders. Both actively engage in summit diplomacy, which has both advantages and risks. While decisive leadership can bring benefits, relying too much on personal judgment can lead to problems. Despite these challenges, summit diplomacy has become a key tool for powerful leaders in handling major global issues like war and peace.

    Today’s editorial highlights the importance of summit diplomacy and the key traits of a strong leader. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Despite unplanned meetings like Trump’s, summit diplomacy will remain important in global relations.

    What are the key characteristics of a “strong leader” in the context of modern politics and diplomacy?

    • Centralization of Power: A strong leader often consolidates power, making key policy and political decisions with minimal consultation. Example: Vladimir Putin’s centralized control over Russian politics and military decisions.
    • Assertive Foreign Policy and Summit Diplomacy: They engage directly in high-profile diplomatic negotiations, often prioritizing personal rapport over traditional diplomatic channels. Example: Donald Trump’s direct summits with Kim Jong-un to negotiate North Korea’s nuclear program.
    • Image Building and Popular Appeal: They craft a strong public persona through rhetoric, social media, and large-scale events to project authority and national pride. Example: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s use of mass rallies and media control to consolidate power in Turkey.
    • Decisive but Controversial Decision-Making: They make bold decisions, sometimes bypassing institutional checks, which can lead to both positive reforms and authoritarian tendencies. Example: Xi Jinping’s removal of term limits in China, allowing him to rule indefinitely.
    Why is summit diplomacy considered both beneficial and problematic in resolving international conflicts?

    Benefits of summit diplomacy: 

    • Direct and Efficient Decision-Making: Summits allow leaders to bypass bureaucratic delays and make high-stakes decisions quickly. Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) saw U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev negotiate directly, preventing nuclear war.
    • Confidence-Building and Diplomatic Trust: Face-to-face interactions help build mutual trust and diplomatic relationships between nations. Example: The Reagan-Gorbachev Summits (1985-1988) played a key role in reducing Cold War tensions and leading to nuclear arms reduction.
    • Breakthroughs in Long-Standing Disputes: Summit diplomacy has resolved historical disputes that traditional diplomacy failed to address. Example: The Camp David Accords (1978) led to peace between Egypt and Israel after decades of hostility.
    • Symbolic and Strategic Value: High-profile summits reinforce a country’s global leadership and strategic partnerships. Example: The Singapore Summit (2018) between Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un, which temporarily reduced tensions on the Korean Peninsula.
    • Crisis Management and De-escalation: Summits provide a platform for crisis diplomacy, helping to prevent conflicts from escalating into full-scale wars. Example: The Dayton Accords (1995) ended the Bosnian War by bringing together leaders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia for direct negotiations.

    Problems of summit diplomacy: 

    • Risk of Superficial Agreements: Leaders often prioritize political optics over substantive solutions, leading to vague or unenforceable agreements. Example: The Minsk Agreements (2014-2015) aimed at resolving the Ukraine conflict but lacked effective implementation mechanisms.
    • Personal Egos and Power Imbalances: Strong-willed leaders may focus more on personal victories rather than genuine conflict resolution. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy Summit (2025), where public confrontations and political grandstanding overshadowed meaningful negotiations on Ukraine.

    How did the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges highlight the complexities and risks of pseudo-summit diplomacy?

    • Blurred Lines Between Diplomacy and Personal Interests: Instead of focusing purely on state interests, pseudo-summit diplomacy can be influenced by personal or political gains. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy phone call (2019) became controversial when Trump allegedly pressured Zelenskyy to investigate Joe Biden’s son, intertwining diplomacy with U.S. domestic politics.
    • Lack of Institutional Safeguards: Informal or direct leader-to-leader diplomacy can bypass traditional diplomatic channels, reducing oversight and accountability. Example: The absence of career diplomats in the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges led to concerns over improper diplomatic conduct and potential abuse of power.
    • Vulnerability to Misinformation and Manipulation: Without structured diplomatic engagement, such interactions can be misused for propaganda or misinterpreted in ways that escalate tensions. Example: The impeachment inquiry against Trump was fueled by the whistleblower complaint alleging that the U.S. was leveraging military aid for political favors.

    What should India learn from this? (Way forward)

    • Institutionalize Diplomatic Processes: Informal leader-to-leader diplomacy should not replace structured diplomatic engagement involving foreign service professionals.
      • India should prioritize institutional mechanisms (e.g., MEA-led negotiations) to ensure consistency and avoid undue political influence in international relations.
    • Avoid Mixing Domestic Politics with Foreign Policy: Diplomatic engagements must remain separate from electoral or partisan interests to maintain credibility.
      • India must ensure that foreign policy decisions are not dictated by short-term political gains and avoid using international diplomacy for domestic political narratives.
    • Strengthen Transparency and Accountability: Diplomatic engagements should be conducted with oversight to prevent misuse or misinterpretation.
      • India should continue using parliamentary committees and professional diplomats to maintain transparency and avoid secretive deals that could lead to unintended consequences.

  • Resolving the vexatious Fishing dispute

    Why in the News?

    Last week, Bimal Rathnayake, the Leader of the House in Sri Lanka’s Parliament and the country’s Transport and Highways Minister, urged the Indian and Tamil Nadu governments to take strong action against illegal fishing in Sri Lankan waters.

    How do domestic factors in both India and Sri Lanka influence their respective foreign policies concerning the fishing dispute?

    For India: 

    • Livelihood Dependency and Economic Pressure: Thousands of fishermen in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry rely on fishing in the Palk Bay for their livelihoods. Limited fishing zones and declining fish stocks in Indian waters push them into Sri Lankan territory.
      • Example: Fishermen from districts like Ramanathapuram and Nagapattinam regularly cross the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) due to insufficient catch within Indian waters.
    • Political and Electoral Pressures: Tamil Nadu’s regional parties, such as the DMK and AIADMK, often raise the fishing dispute to secure voter support, pressuring the central government to prioritize the issue in foreign policy.
      • Example: Before elections, Tamil Nadu politicians routinely demand stronger diplomatic efforts to release Indian fishermen detained by the Sri Lankan Navy.
    • Legal and Regulatory Constraints: Indian regulations, like the Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act (1983), restrict the use of mechanized boats close to the shore, limiting fishing areas and driving fishermen toward Sri Lankan waters.
      • Example: The 1983 Act bans trawling within three nautical miles of the Indian coastline, making deeper Sri Lankan waters more attractive despite the legal risks.

    For Srilanka: 

    • Protection of Northern Province Fishermen’s Livelihoods: Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen in the Northern Province rely on traditional fishing methods and face competition from Indian trawlers, which threatens their livelihoods.
    • Post-Civil War Economic Recovery: The Northern Province, which was heavily affected by the civil war, is still recovering economically. Safeguarding local fishing areas is seen as vital for the region’s rehabilitation and economic stability.
      • Example: The Sri Lankan government prioritizes protecting fishing zones to support the economic revival of communities affected by the civil war.
    • Political and Nationalist Sentiments: There is domestic pressure on the Sri Lankan government to take a strong stance against perceived violations of territorial waters, especially from nationalist groups and local political parties.
      • Example: In 2015, then-Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe defended the Sri Lankan Navy’s actions against Indian fishermen, reflecting nationalist sentiments on protecting maritime boundaries.

    Why is resolving the “festering Palk Bay sheries dispute” considered crucial for the Tamil-speaking fishermen of Sri Lanka’s Northern Province?

    • Protection of Livelihoods: Tamil-speaking fishermen in Sri Lanka’s Northern Province depend on local marine resources for their survival. Illegal fishing by Indian trawlers reduces fish stocks, threatening their primary source of income.
      • Example: Frequent incursions by Indian fishermen using bottom trawling disrupt the local fishing economy, making it difficult for Sri Lankan fishermen to sustain their livelihoods.
    • Environmental Sustainability: Bottom trawling by Indian fishermen causes severe damage to marine ecosystems, affecting fish breeding and long-term marine biodiversity.
      • Example: The destruction of fish habitats due to bottom trawling reduces future fish yields, directly impacting the sustainability of fishing communities in the Northern Province.
    • Socio-Economic Recovery Post-Civil War: The Northern Province is still recovering from the socio-economic impacts of Sri Lanka’s civil war. Protecting their fishing waters is vital for long-term economic stability and community rebuilding.
      • Example: Ensuring exclusive access to local waters helps these communities rebuild their economy and strengthens their post-war rehabilitation efforts.

    What role can India play in resolving the Palk Bay fishing dispute? (Way forward)

    • Promoting Sustainable Fishing Practices: India can encourage and support its fishermen to adopt sustainable fishing methods, reducing the harmful impact of bottom trawling in Sri Lankan waters.
      • Example: Expanding the Palk Bay deep-sea fishing scheme and integrating it with the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana can help Indian fishermen transition to deep-sea fishing, reducing pressure on the Palk Bay region.
    • Facilitating Bilateral Talks: India can work with Sri Lanka to resume and mediate talks between fishermen from both countries, fostering dialogue and finding mutually beneficial solutions.
      • Example: India previously supported fishermen-level talks in 2016, which allowed both sides to voice concerns and seek collaborative solutions. Restarting such discussions can ease tensions.
    • Strengthening Legal and Diplomatic Cooperation: India can strengthen legal frameworks and diplomatic channels to enforce maritime boundaries while ensuring the protection of its fishermen’s rights.
      • Example: The Joint Working Group on Fisheries (established in 2016) provides a platform for both governments to discuss and implement measures to prevent illegal fishing and resolve disputes amicably.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In respect of India-Sri Lanka relations, discuss how do mestic factors influence foreign policy. (2013)

  • ‘MAHASAGAR’ vision for Global South

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi has unveiled ‘MAHASAGAR’ (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions) during his March 2025 visit to Mauritius, outlining India’s expanded vision for security and development across the Global South.

    What is MAHASAGAR?

    • Mahasagar is India’s expanded strategic vision aimed at enhancing security, trade, and development cooperation across the Global South.
    • It builds on India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) policy, which focused on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
    • Three Core Pillars:
    1. Trade for Development: Enhancing economic ties through technology-sharing and trade facilitation.
    2. Capacity Building for Sustainable Growth: Supporting nations with infrastructure, education, and economic partnerships.
    3. Mutual Security for a Shared Future: Strengthening regional security, maritime cooperation, and defense ties.
    • It seeks to address China’s expanding presence in the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean by promoting India-led cooperation models.
    • It aims to position India as a champion of the Global South, amplifying their voice in global policymaking (e.g., G20, IORA, BRICS).

    How Mahasagar builds on SAGAR (2015)?

    • India’s SAGAR policy (2015) was a regional framework focused on maritime security and economic cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
    • Mahasagar broadens this vision to global engagement with the Global South.
    SAGAR (2015) Mahasagar (2025)
    Geographic Scope Indian Ocean Region (IOR) Global South, Indo-Pacific, Africa, Latin America
    Focus Areas Maritime security, economic ties, blue economy, regional stability Trade-driven development, technology-sharing, capacity building, global security
    Strategic Partnerships Mauritius, Seychelles, Maldives, Sri Lanka, IOR countries Expands to Africa, ASEAN, Latin America, Pacific Island Nations
    Security & Defense Cooperation Anti-piracy, maritime domain awareness, EEZ protection Joint naval exercises, cyber security, defense partnerships
    Economic & Developmental Focus Blue economy, infrastructure, trade corridors in IOR Technology transfer, concessional loans, trade in local currencies
    Diplomatic Strategy Regional cooperation through IORA, BIMSTEC Voice of the Global South in G20, BRICS, UN initiatives

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS):

    1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.

    2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [11th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An India-U.S. trade agreement and the test of WTO laws

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)  Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc  (2020) and WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’ (2018).

    During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s U.S. visit on February 13, 2025, India and the U.S. agreed to begin talks on a multi-sector Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) by fall 2025. As both countries are WTO members, the agreement must follow WTO rules. While details remain unclear, the agreement’s content matters more than its label.

    Today’s editorial discusses how the ongoing Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) negotiations may affect both countries. This information is useful for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Since both the U.S. and India are members of the World Trade Organization, their trade agreements must follow WTO rules.

    What are the key legal challenges India and the U.S. may face while negotiating a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) under WTO law?

    • Violation of the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Principle: WTO law mandates that any trade advantage granted to one member must be extended to all members (Article I of GATT). A BTA providing preferential tariffs only to India or the U.S. may violate this principle.
      • Example: If the U.S. lowers tariffs on Indian textiles under the BTA without extending the same benefit to other WTO members like China, it breaches the MFN principle.
    • Meeting the “Substantially All Trade” Requirement: Article XXIV.8(b) of GATT requires that Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) must cover “substantially all trade.” A limited-scope BTA focusing only on select sectors (e.g., pharmaceuticals or agriculture) may not satisfy this condition.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA only includes technology and defense products while excluding key areas like agriculture, it may not qualify as a valid FTA under WTO law.
    • Notification and Transparency Obligations: WTO members must notify the organization of any new regional trade agreements (RTAs) or BTAs and demonstrate compliance with Article XXIV of GATT. Failure to provide transparent schedules may lead to legal disputes.
      • Example: If India and the U.S. do not submit a clear implementation timeline for tariff reductions under an interim BTA, other WTO members could challenge the agreement.
    • Bound Tariff Commitments: Both countries have pre-committed to maximum tariff limits (bound tariffs) under WTO rules. Any preferential treatment exceeding these limits may violate their commitments.
      • Example: If India agrees to reduce tariffs on American agricultural imports below its bound tariff rates, it could be accused of breaching its WTO commitments.
    • Misuse of the “Interim Agreement” Clause: Article XXIV.5 allows “interim agreements” only if they lead to a full FTA within a reasonable period (usually 10 years). Using an interim BTA to delay full liberalization may face legal scrutiny.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA remains a partial agreement for an extended period without progressing toward an FTA, it could be deemed a violation of WTO norms.

    Why is the “most favoured nation” (MFN) principle significant in evaluating the legality of the proposed India-U.S. BTA?

    • Prevents Discrimination Between Trading Partners: The MFN principle under Article I of GATT ensures that any trade advantage (e.g., lower tariffs) given to one WTO member must be extended to all members. A BTA offering exclusive benefits violates this core principle.
      • Example: If the U.S. reduces tariffs on Indian pharmaceuticals but does not extend the same reduction to other countries like Vietnam, it breaches the MFN rule.
    • Limits Preferential Bilateral Deals: WTO law only allows exceptions to the MFN rule through comprehensive trade agreements covering “substantially all trade” under Article XXIV of GATT. A narrowly focused BTA risks legal challenges.
      • Example: If India and the U.S. sign a BTA that only includes high-tech products while excluding major sectors like agriculture, it may not qualify for an MFN exemption.
    • Ensures Transparency and Fair Competition: The MFN principle promotes a transparent, rule-based trading system where no country receives hidden advantages, ensuring fair market access for all WTO members.
      • Example: If India provides exclusive tariff cuts on American dairy products without offering similar terms to New Zealand, it would violate WTO transparency obligations.
    • Prevents Trade Fragmentation: Upholding the MFN principle avoids trade fragmentation by ensuring consistent rules for all members. Bilateral deals that bypass MFN could undermine the multilateral trade system.
      • Example: If the U.S. grants Indian textiles preferential access through a BTA but not to countries like Bangladesh, it could distort global supply chains.
    • Requires WTO Notification and Review: Any departure from the MFN principle through a BTA must be notified to the WTO and subjected to legal scrutiny under Article XXIV to confirm its compliance.
      • Example: If the India-U.S. BTA is not notified to the WTO or lacks a clear transition plan toward an FTA, it may be legally contested by other members like China or the EU.

    How can the proposed BTA be structured as an “interim agreement” under Article XXIV of the GATT without violating WTO norms?

    • Commitment to Full Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union: The BTA must outline a clear plan to eventually form a Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union within a reasonable time frame (generally within 10 years).
      • Example: The India-Mauritius Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) started as an interim agreement with the goal of expanding into a broader trade framework.
    • Transparency and Notification to WTO: The parties must notify the WTO of the interim agreement and submit detailed information on trade coverage, timelines, and implementation steps for review by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).
      • Example: The European Union (EU)-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was notified to the WTO during the Brexit transition, ensuring compliance with Article XXIV.
    • Non-Discriminatory Transition: The interim agreement must not create unjustifiable discrimination against other WTO members, and the removal of trade barriers should cover substantially all trade between the parties.
      • Example: The US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) complies with this by covering a broad range of goods and services, ensuring that trade barriers are progressively reduced.

    Way forward: 

    • Ensure Comprehensive Coverage and Timely Transition: Design the BTA to cover substantially all trade sectors with a clear roadmap toward a full Free Trade Area (FTA) within the 10-year WTO guideline to comply with Article XXIV.
    • Enhance Transparency and Legal Compliance: Notify the WTO promptly, providing detailed schedules on tariff reductions and implementation timelines, ensuring non-discrimination and regular compliance reviews by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).

  • India, Mauritius and a visit to deepen long-standing ties

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister Modi will visit Mauritius on March 11-12, 2025, to strengthen relations with the new government and confirm India’s support for the island’s security and growth.

    What are the key historical and cultural ties between India and Mauritius?

    • Indentured Labor Heritage (1834 Onwards): Nearly 70% of Mauritians are of Indian origin, descendants of indentured laborers brought by the British to work on sugar plantations. Example: The Aapravasi Ghat in Port Louis, a UNESCO World Heritage site, marks the arrival point of Indian laborers.
    • Shared Freedom Struggles: Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritius’ first Prime Minister, worked closely with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose during Bose’s stay in London (1919-21). Example: Sir Ramgoolam proofread Bose’s famous book “ The Indian Struggle” and received an autographed copy in appreciation.
    • Linguistic and Cultural Preservation: Various Indian languages, including Bhojpuri, Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi, are actively spoken and preserved through cultural institutions. Example: The Mahatma Gandhi Institute (established in 1976) promotes Indian languages, arts, and culture in Mauritius.
    • Religious and Festival Ties: Hinduism is practiced by over 48% of the population, and Indian festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Thaipusam are widely celebrated. Example: The Ganga Talao (Grand Bassin) pilgrimage site is considered sacred and draws thousands during Maha Shivaratri.
    • Institutional and Diplomatic Links: India actively supports Mauritius through diplomatic and cultural outreach programs. Example: Mauritius hosts the World Hindi Secretariat, which is supported by India to promote the Hindi language globally.

    Why is maritime security cooperation between India and Mauritius crucial? 

    • Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean: Mauritius lies at a key maritime crossroads in the western Indian Ocean, making it vital for monitoring international shipping lanes and securing regional trade. Example: The Colombo Security Conclave (including India, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Bangladesh) enhances cooperation to ensure maritime safety.
    • Countering China’s Expanding Influence: With China increasing its presence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) through infrastructure projects and naval activities, India’s partnership with Mauritius helps balance regional power. Example: India’s Agaléga Island redevelopment supports surveillance and counters China’s maritime ambitions.
    • Securing Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs): Mauritius has an EEZ of 2.3 million sq. km, rich in marine resources. Collaboration ensures these areas are protected from illegal activities like fishing and piracy. Example: India’s INS Sarvekshak recently completed an ocean survey of 25,000 sq. km in Mauritius’ EEZ to enhance maritime mapping and security.
    • Joint Surveillance and Intelligence Sharing: Surveillance cooperation enhances maritime domain awareness and secures trade routes against piracy, trafficking, and other threats. Example: Mauritius has access to India’s Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram for real-time maritime intelligence.
    • Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR): Close maritime ties enable swift disaster response and the delivery of humanitarian aid in times of crisis. Example: India provided naval assistance to Mauritius during the MV Wakashio oil spill disaster in 2020.

    Where has India invested in maritime infrastructure and security cooperation with Mauritius?

    • Agaléga Island Development: India is redeveloping Agaléga Island to establish airstrips and port facilities for joint surveillance and maritime domain awareness. Example: This facility enhances monitoring of maritime traffic and strengthens anti-piracy and anti-smuggling operations.
    • Coastal Radar Surveillance Network: India has installed a network of coastal radar stations in Mauritius to improve maritime security and real-time surveillance of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). Example: This system helps track illegal maritime activities like smuggling and unauthorized fishing.
    • Access to the Information Fusion Centre (IFC-IOR): India provides Mauritius access to its Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR), which enables intelligence sharing and coordinated maritime operations. Example: Mauritius can monitor maritime traffic, enhancing its ability to protect its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and respond to emerging threats.

    What role does the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) play in their economic partnership?

    • Facilitating Foreign Investments: The DTAA between India and Mauritius prevents double taxation on income, encouraging foreign investments to flow through Mauritius into India. Example: As of March 2024, Mauritius remained India’s fourth-largest source of FPI, contributing ₹4.19 lakh crore, accounting for 6% of India’s total FPI of ₹69.54 lakh crore.
    • Strengthening Mauritius as a Financial Hub: The agreement has helped Mauritius become a major international financial centre, particularly for investments into India and African markets. Example: Many private equity and venture capital funds use Mauritius as a base to invest in Indian businesses due to favorable tax treatment.
    • Impact of Treaty Amendments on Investment Flows: In March 2024, India and Mauritius revised the DTAA to include the Principal Purpose Test (PPT), aiming to prevent treaty abuse and tax evasion. Following these amendments, FPIs withdrew ₹8,671 crore from Indian equities in April 2024, reflecting concerns over the revised tax implications.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Maritime Security Collaboration: There is a need to strengthen joint surveillance, intelligence sharing, and capacity-building initiatives to secure the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and safeguard maritime trade routes.
    • Deepen Economic and Financial Cooperation: The Government should adapt the DTAA framework to maintain investor confidence while fostering transparent, sustainable investment flows between the two nations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Why was indentured labour taken by the British from India to their colonies? have they been able to preserve their cultural identity over there? (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • The academic link between Nepal and India

    Why in the News?

    On February 16, a third-year female student from Nepal died by suicide at Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) in Bhubaneswar.

    What were the reasons behind the protests by Nepali students at KIIT, Bhubaneswar?

    • Harassment and University Inaction: Nepali students protested after a third-year Nepali woman student died by suicide, allegedly due to harassment by a male student. Despite multiple complaints, the university failed to take action. Example: The deceased student had repeatedly reported the harassment to university authorities, but no substantial steps were taken to address her concerns.
    • Forced Campus Eviction: KIIT ordered Nepali students to vacate the campus following the protests, which was viewed as an unjust punishment against the entire community. Example: Instead of addressing the harassment claims, the university’s eviction order further alienated Nepali students, leading to greater unrest.
    • Demand for Justice and Fair Treatment: Students sought accountability for the harassment and fair treatment under the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty of 1950, which ensures equal rights for Nepali citizens in India. Example: Protesters argued that the eviction violated Articles 6 and 7 of the treaty, which guarantee the right to residence and fair treatment.

    Why is Nepal’s education system being influenced by the colonial legacy of British India?

    • Affiliation with Indian Universities: Nepal’s first college, Tri-Chandra College (established in 1918), was affiliated with Indian universities (Calcutta and later Patna University), controlling courses, pedagogy, and examinations.
    • Dependence on Indian Instructors: Early instructors in Nepal’s education system were trained in Indian universities, leading to the adoption of Indian academic frameworks.
    • Limited Domestic Higher Education: Until Tribhuvan University was established in 1959, Nepal lacked postgraduate education, forcing students to seek higher education in India.
    • Colonial Curriculum: The content of education remained heavily influenced by British India’s system, limiting the development of Nepal-centric academic discourse.
    • Post-1950 Reforms: Efforts like the National Educational Planning Commission (1954) and New Education System Plan (1971) aimed to “Nepalise” the system, yet the intellectual field continued to be shaped by Indian education.

    In what way is the KIIT incident linked to the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty of 1950, especially Articles 6 and 7?

    • Violation of Equal Treatment (Article 6): Article 6 of the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty ensures that citizens of Nepal and India receive “national treatment” in each other’s territories. The directive for Nepali students to vacate the KIIT campus violated this provision by treating them differently based on their nationality.
    • Infringement on the Right to Residence (Article 7): Article 7 grants Nepali citizens the right to reside in India without discrimination. KIIT’s order to vacate the premises directly infringed on this right, as it targeted Nepali students exclusively.
    • Impact on Educational Access (Article 7): The Treaty allows Nepali citizens to pursue education in India without barriers. The disruption of academic activities and the evacuation order restricted their educational access, breaching this provision.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Institutional Accountability: Ensure universities establish robust grievance redressal mechanisms to address harassment complaints promptly and impartially. Independent inquiry committees should be set up to investigate incidents, ensuring transparency and justice.
    • Upholding Treaty Commitments: Indian institutions must align their policies with the Indo-Nepal Peace Treaty, guaranteeing equal treatment and the right to residence for Nepali students. Regular dialogue between Indian and Nepali authorities can help prevent future violations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)