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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • What are carbon capture and utilization technologies?

    Why in the News?

    Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) has gained attention as India advances its Draft 2030 CCUS Roadmap and aligns industrial policy with its Net Zero 2070 commitment. With India remaining the world’s third-largest CO₂ emitter and emissions concentrated in hard-to-abate sectors like cement and steel, CCU is being positioned as a key strategy to decarbonise industry while sustaining economic growth.

    What is Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) and how does it function within the carbon cycle?

    1. Definition: Captures carbon dioxide (CO₂) from industrial flue gases or ambient air and converts it into usable products.
    2. Source of Capture: Extracts carbon dioxide from cement plants, steel units, power plants, chemical industries, or through Direct Air Capture (DAC).
    3. Conversion Pathways: Transforms carbon dioxide into fuels (methanol, synthetic fuels), chemicals (olefins), building materials (concrete curing), and polymers.
    4. Difference from CCS: Utilises carbon for economic value instead of permanent geological storage.
    5. Circular Carbon Economy: Recycles carbon within production systems, reducing fresh fossil extraction.

    Why has Carbon Capture and Utilisation become a governance priority in India’s decarbonisation strategy?

    1. Emission Profile: India ranks as the third-largest CO₂ emitter, with emissions concentrated in power generation, cement, steel, and chemicals.
    2. Hard-to-Abate Sectors: Industrial processes remain inherently carbon-intensive despite renewable penetration.
    3. Net-Zero Alignment: Supports India’s Net Zero 2070 target and Long-Term Low Emissions Development Strategy (LT-LEDS).
    4. Circular Economy Transition: Converts waste carbon into economic inputs, strengthening resource efficiency.
    5. Industrial Competitiveness: Enables low-carbon industrial exports amid global carbon border adjustment measures.

    How does CCU reshape industrial policy and value chains in India?

    1. Carbon as Feedstock: Converts CO₂ into fuels, chemicals, lightweight concrete blocks, olefins, and specialty chemicals.
    2. Value Chain Creation: Integrates capture, transport, conversion, and downstream manufacturing clusters.
    3. Bio-CCU Innovation: Organic Recycling Systems Limited (ORSL) leads India’s first pilot-scale Bio-CCU platform converting CO₂ from biogas into bio-alcohols.
    4. Cement Sector Adoption: JK Cement collaborates on CCU to capture CO₂ for concrete applications.
    5. Private Sector Participation: Ambuja Cements and Adani Group pilot Indo-Swedish CCU technologies at IIT Bombay.

    What institutional and regulatory measures has India initiated to support CCU deployment?

    1. Research Roadmap: Department of Science and Technology develops dedicated CCU research and development framework.
    2. Draft 2030 CCUS Roadmap: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas identifies projects suitable for CCU deployment.
    3. Pilot Demonstration Projects: Facilitates early-stage technology validation across cement and energy sectors.
    4. Cluster-Based Approach: Recognizes need for co-located industrial clusters for CO₂ transport and utilisation.
    5. Policy Gap: Lacks carbon pricing, standards, certification mechanisms, and demand guarantees for CO₂-derived products.

    How do international policy models shape India’s CCU strategy?

    1. EU Bioeconomy Strategy: Integrates CCU into a circular economy framework for fuels, chemicals, and materials.
    2. EU Circular Economy Action Plan: Links CCU to sustainability and resource efficiency goals.
    3. U.S. Incentive Model: Combines tax credits and funding to scale CO₂-derived fuels and chemicals.
    4. Industrial Trials: ArcelorMittal (Belgium) and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries collaborate with D-CRBN to convert CO₂ into carbon monoxide for steel and chemicals.
    5. UAE Model: Al Reyadah project integrates CCU with green hydrogen for CO₂-to-chemicals hubs.

    What governance and economic risks constrain large-scale CCU adoption in India?

    1. Cost Competitiveness: Capturing, purifying, and converting CO₂ remains energy-intensive and expensive.
    2. Market Viability: CO₂-derived products struggle against cheaper fossil-based alternatives.
    3. Infrastructure Deficit: Requires reliable CO₂ transport networks and integrated industrial clusters.
    4. Regulatory Uncertainty: Absence of standards and certification creates investor hesitation.
    5. Demand-Side Weakness: Limited market signals reduce private capital mobilisation.

    Does CCU advance constitutional environmental principles and climate accountability?

    1. Article 48A: Strengthens State responsibility to protect and improve the environment.
    2. Article 51A(g): Encourages responsible environmental stewardship.
    3. Intergenerational Equity: Supports sustainable industrial growth without locking in emissions.
    4. Polluter Responsibility: Encourages industry-led carbon management mechanisms.

    Conclusion

    Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) bridges the gap between industrial growth and climate responsibility. It enables decarbonisation of hard-to-abate sectors while supporting circular economy and energy security objectives. However, large-scale deployment requires cost competitiveness, regulatory clarity, infrastructure development, and market incentives. Its effectiveness will depend on coordinated policy action, technological scaling, and institutional accountability aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 pathway.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) directly fits under Kyoto Protocol-based mitigation mechanisms aimed at reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions. It represents a technology-driven control measure to decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors while aligning with global climate commitments.

  • Land Use Change Reshaping Spider Communities in the Himalayas

    Why in the News

    A new study published in Insect Conservation and Diversity by researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India finds that land use change and elevation are significantly reshaping spider communities in the north western Indian Himalayas, potentially reducing ecosystem resilience.

    What Did the Study Examine?

    • Surveyed spiders along an elevational gradient of 1,500 to 4,500 metres in Himachal Pradesh.
    • Compared three land use types:
      • Forests
      • Agricultural lands
      • Human dominated regions
    • Recorded:
      • 2,936 individuals
      • 126 species
      • 65 genera
      • 26 families

    What is Functional Diversity?

      • Functional diversity refers to the ecological roles species perform, rather than just counting the number of species.
    • Examples of spider traits studied:
        • Circadian activity
        • Hunting strata
        • Ballooning ability
        • Hunting guild
        • Prey range
    • Higher functional diversity means:
      • Greater ecological stability
      • Better pest control
      • More resilience against disturbances

    Key Findings

    • Decline with Elevation: Species richness and functional redundancy decrease with altitude, with a critical threshold around 3,000 to 3,500 metres near the Himalayan treeline, increasing ecosystem vulnerability.
    • Agricultural Homogenisation: Functional diversity remains stable across elevations in agricultural areas, indicating trait homogenisation due to intensification, with dominance of ground dwelling spiders like Lycosidae.
    • Forest Elevational Gradients: Forest ecosystems show clear trait shifts with altitude, with communities largely dominated by cathemeral species.
    • Human Dominated Landscapes: Greater trait richness at lower elevations supports the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, with presence of synanthropic species adapted to human environments.

    Ecological Importance of Spiders

    • Among the most voracious arthropod predators.
    • Consume over 600 million tonnes of insects annually.
    • Help regulate pest populations and disease vectors.
    • Act as bioindicators of habitat disturbance.
    [2011] The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this phenomenon? (a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth. 

    (b) It is a confluence of different biogeographical zones. 

    (c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region. 

    (d) It has less human interference.

  • India Among Four Nations Driving Global Pesticide Toxicity

    Why in the News

    A new study published in Science finds that India is among four countries contributing nearly 70 percent of the world’s Total Applied Toxicity (TAT) from agricultural pesticides. Experts have also raised concerns that the proposed Pesticides Management Bill 2025 may weaken safeguards compared to the older law.

    What is Total Applied Toxicity (TAT)?

    • TAT measures not just the quantity of pesticides used, but their toxicity and lethality to non target species.
    • Researchers analysed over 600 pesticides across 65 countries from 2013 to 2019.
    • Global TAT has increased, especially for around 20 commonly used agricultural pesticides.

    Countries Driving Global TAT

    • Four major contributors: China, Brazil, United States, and India
    • Together, they account for nearly 70 percent of global pesticide toxicity.
    • Only Chile is currently on track to meet the UN target of reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030.

    Impact on Biodiversity

    Species most affected:

    1. Terrestrial arthropods
    2. Soil organisms
    3. Fish
    4. Pollinators
    5. Aquatic plants
    6. Terrestrial vertebrates

    Regions with high increases include sub Saharan Africa and parts of the Indian subcontinent.

    Link to Global Commitments

    • At the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, countries committed to reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030. The findings indicate that global progress is not on track.

    Indian Legal Framework

    1. Insecticides Act 1968

    • Focused mainly on agricultural use
    • Limited regulation of domestic and non agricultural applications
    • Considered outdated
    • India reportedly uses several pesticides that are banned in parts of Europe, such as paraquat.

    2. Pesticides Management Bill 2025

    • Proposed to replace the 1968 Act
    • Aims to reduce risk to people and environment
    • Encourages biological and traditional knowledge based alternatives
    • Experts warn that without stronger liability and monitoring provisions, it may not significantly improve regulation
    [2019] In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as: 

    (a) pesticides in agriculture 

    (b) preservatives in processed foods 

    (c) fruit-ripening agents 

    (d) moisturising agents in cosmetics

  • Padayappa the wild tusker in Munnar

    Why in the News?

    A wild tusker named Padayappa has recently damaged vehicles along the Munnar to Marayur route in Kerala during his musth period, reviving debate over human wildlife conflict and relocation demands.

    Location

    • Munnar, Idukki district, Kerala
    • Roams between Munnar and Devikulam forest ranges

    About Padayappa

    • Approximate age: 60 years
    • Species: Asian Elephant
    • Identifiable by:
      • Limp due to hind leg injury
      • Unusually long tusks
    • Named after the Rajinikanth film Padayappa
    • Known as a tourism icon in Munnar

    Recent Developments

    • Damaged four vehicles this month
    • Over 20 vehicles damaged during last year’s musth period
    • Forest Department Rapid Response Team monitoring movements
    • Officials state aggression linked only to musth, not habitual conflict behavior

    Musth (Prelims Concept)

    • A periodic condition in male elephants
    • Characterised by:
      • Increased testosterone levels
      • Heightened aggression
      • Temporal gland secretion
    • Seasonal and temporary phase
    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements: 1. The leader of an elephant group is a female. 

    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months. 

    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only. 

    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • Nicobar project’s strategic and ecological consequences

    Why in the News?

    The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has raised concerns over environmental safeguards in the ₹81,000-crore Great Nicobar mega project. The project has drawn attention due to large-scale forest diversion and its strategic significance as a proposed economic and defence hub.

    What is the Great Nicobar Island Development Project?

    1. Mega Infrastructure Project: Envisions integrated development of Great Nicobar Island as a strategic economic and defence hub at India’s southernmost tip.
    2. Project Cost: Estimated investment of about ₹81,000 crore aimed at long-term maritime and regional development.
    3. Core Components: Includes a transshipment port at Galathea Bay, a dual-use international airport, a greenfield township, and power infrastructure.
    4. Strategic Objective: Strengthens India’s maritime presence near major Indo-Pacific shipping routes and supports blue economy goals.
    5. Scale of Development: Covers nearly 166 sq km area involving land reclamation and major infrastructure expansion.
    6. Institutional Framework: Implemented through island development planning with environmental clearances subject to regulatory review.

    How does the Great Nicobar project reshape India’s strategic and maritime governance priorities?

    1. Strategic Location: Strengthens India’s maritime presence near the Malacca Strait, a key global shipping lane; positions India in Indo-Pacific logistics competition.
    2. Transshipment Capacity: Facilitates cargo transfer from large to smaller vessels; reduces dependence on foreign ports such as Singapore and Colombo.
    3. Defence Integration: Supports dual-use infrastructure with a military-civilian airport near INS Baaz, ensuring enhanced regional surveillance capability.
    4. Economic Hub Objective: Promotes integrated development through shipping, logistics and energy infrastructure to strengthen blue economy outcomes.
    5. Example: Proposed transshipment port at Galathea Bay designed for large-scale maritime trade handling.

    What governance challenges arise from large-scale development in ecologically fragile island ecosystems?

    1. Forest Diversion: Involves diversion of approximately 130 sq km of forest land from a 910 sq km island ecosystem.
    2. Deforestation Scale: Requires felling of nearly one million trees, raising compliance concerns under environmental clearance norms.
    3. Land Reclamation: Includes reclamation of around 166 sq km project area for infrastructure expansion.
    4. Institutional Oversight: Raises questions on adequacy of environmental impact assessments and monitoring frameworks.
    5. Example: Expansion activities around Galathea Bay intersect with ecologically sensitive zones.

    How does the project test environmental regulatory institutions and accountability mechanisms?

    1. Regulatory Scrutiny: NGT intervention strengthens judicial review of environmental decision-making processes.
    2. Clearance Process: Examines whether cumulative ecological impacts were fully assessed before approval.
    3. Precautionary Principle: Tests application of environmental jurisprudence balancing development and ecological risk.
    4. Administrative Accountability: Requires periodic compliance reporting and transparent monitoring frameworks.
    5. Example: NGT observations questioning safeguards indicate institutional check on executive decisions.

    What are the ecological and biodiversity implications of the proposed development?

    1. Biodiversity Loss: Threatens habitat of endemic species including Nicobar megapode and other island fauna.
    2. Protected Areas Impact: Project proximity to biosphere reserve and national parks intensifies conservation concerns.
    3. Ecosystem Fragility: Mixed evergreen forests and coastal ecosystems face fragmentation risk.
    4. Marine Ecology: Port development affects nesting sites and coastal biodiversity patterns.
    5. Example: Galathea Bay identified as ecologically sensitive with species nesting grounds.

    How does the project raise questions about social justice and indigenous rights governance?

    1. Indigenous Communities: Potential implications for vulnerable tribal groups residing in island regions.
    2. Livelihood Disruption: Infrastructure expansion may alter traditional ecological dependence and local settlements.
    3. Consultative Governance: Tests adequacy of consent and participatory decision-making mechanisms.
    4. Development vs Rights: Balances national strategic goals with constitutional protections for tribal communities.
    5. Example: Concerns raised regarding impacts on indigenous settlements in project vicinity.

    What economic and infrastructure outcomes are expected, and what risks remain?

    1. Infrastructure Integration: Ensures integrated development through airport, port, township and power plant.
    2. Logistics Efficiency: Promotes India’s emergence as a regional shipping hub.
    3. Investment Scale: ₹81,000 crore investment indicates long-term economic planning.
    4. Implementation Risk: High ecological and regulatory costs may delay or reshape execution timelines.
    5. Example: Planned airport area approximately 8.45 sq km and transshipment port around 7.66 sq km.

    Conclusion

    The Great Nicobar mega project represents a critical governance test where strategic economic ambitions intersect with ecological fragility and constitutional environmental commitments. Its long-term success will depend not merely on infrastructure delivery but on the credibility of regulatory safeguards, ecological accountability and inclusive decision-making mechanisms.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details.

    Linkage: This PYQ is directly relevant as the Great Nicobar Island Development Project has faced scrutiny over the adequacy of its Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and safeguards. It highlights how environmental activism, regulatory oversight, and institutional accountability influence approval and modification of large infrastructure projects.

  • Forest Rights Act Cells in Odisha under Central Scrutiny

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has begun inquiries after the Odisha government directed closure of several Forest Rights Act Cells and removal of staff involved in implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

    About the Forest Rights Act, 2006

    Objective

    • Recognises historical rights of:
      • Scheduled Tribes
      • Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
    • Over forest land used for habitat and livelihood.

    Types of Rights Recognised

    1. Individual Forest Rights
    2. Community Rights
    3. Community Forest Resource Rights

    Institutional Mechanism

    • Gram Sabha is the initiating authority.
    • Sub Divisional Level Committee
    • District Level Committee as final authority

    What are FRA Cells?

    • FRA Cells were created to:
      • Provide technical and clerical support
      • Maintain records
      • Digitise forest rights titles
      • Expedite processing of claims

    They were supported under:

    • DA JGUA Scheme

      • Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan
      • Launched in 2024
      • Central scheme
      • Provides additional human resources to strengthen FRA implementation

    • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana (Odisha State Scheme)

      • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana
      • State initiative to support FRA implementation

    Current Issue

    • Closure of 50 sub divisional FRA Cells.
    • Direction to clear all pending claims by March end.
    • Earlier discontinuation of district and tehsil level FRA staff.
    • Nearly 20 percent of FRA claims pending in the State.
    • Odisha has:
      • Second highest number of titles issued after Chhattisgarh.
      • Sixth highest pendency rate.
    [2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006? 

    (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 

    (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj 

    (c) Ministry of Rural Development 

    (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs

  • Japan’s Lake Suwa and the Disappearing “God’s Crossing”

    Why in the News?

    The traditional ice ridge phenomenon called “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari) on Lake Suwa in Japan has failed to appear for the seventh consecutive year, highlighting long term warming trends linked to climate change.

    Where is Lake Suwa?

    • Located in Nagano Prefecture, Japan
    • Associated with the Shinto shrine Yatsurugi Shrine
    • One of Japan’s most well documented climatic sites

    What is “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari)?

    • Traditional Belief
      • A raised ice ridge on the frozen lake surface.
      • Believed to mark the path of a deity crossing the lake.
    • Scientific Explanation
      • Occurs when: Lake surface freezes completely and Temperatures remain below minus 10°C for several days.
      • Ice expands and contracts due to temperature variation.
      • Cracks form, refreeze, and push shards upward forming a ridge.

    Climate Record Significance

    • Continuous records date back to 1443.
    • Shrine priests began systematic documentation from 1683.
    • Includes:
      • Date of full lake freeze
      • Appearance of miwatari
      • Ice thickness
      • Temperature readings

    Note: This makes Lake Suwa one of the longest continuous local climate records in the world.

    Climate Change Indicator

    • Phenomenon appeared almost every winter until the 1980s.
    • Increasing winter temperatures have reduced full lake freezing.
    • No appearance since 2018.
    • Shows impact of rising minimum temperatures.
    [2022] Which one of the following lakes of West Africa has become dry and turned into a desert? (a) Lake Victoria 

    (b) Lake Faguibine 

    (c) Lake Oguta 

    (d) Lake Volta

  • Great Nicobar Mega Project Cleared by NGT

    Why in the News?

    A special bench of the National Green Tribunal has declined to interfere with the environmental clearance granted to the ₹80,000 crore Great Nicobar Mega Infrastructure Project, citing its strategic importance and the presence of adequate safeguards.

    About Great Nicobar Island

    • The southernmost island of the Nicobar group
    • Located in the southeastern Bay of Bengal
    • Area: ~910 sq km
    • Largely covered with tropical rainforest
    • Ecologically sensitive and sparsely populated

    About the Great Nicobar Mega Project

    • Total project area: 166 sq km
    • Forest diversion: 130 sq km
    • Trees to be felled: Nearly 1 million

    Major Components:

    • International transshipment port
    • Integrated township
    • Civil and military airport
    • 450 MVA gas and solar based power plant

    Key Environmental Issues Raised

    • Violation of the Island Coastal Regulation Zone notification 2019
    • Development in prohibited ICRZ areas
    • Insufficient baseline environmental data
    • Threat to endemic biodiversity and coral reefs
      • The NGT relied on findings of a High Powered Committee constituted after its 2023 order.

    NGT’s Key Observations

    1. No part of the project falls in prohibited ICRZ areas as per committee findings
    2. Environmental clearance contains adequate safeguards
    3. Strategic importance of the project cannot be ignored
    4. Balanced approach required between ecology and development

    About Island Coastal Regulation Zone ICRZ

    • Notified under Environment Protection Act 1986
    • Regulates development in coastal areas of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands
    • Categorises areas such as ICRZ IA and IB with varying restrictions
    [2017] Which of the following is geographically closest to Great Nicobar? (a) Sumatra 

    (b) Borneo 

    (c) Java 

    (d) Sri Lanka

  • Supreme Court Stays Haryana’s Aravalli Zoo Safari Project

    Why in the news?

    • The Supreme Court of India has refused to allow the Haryana government to proceed with its proposed Aravalli Zoo Safari Project until the definition of the “Aravalli Range” is scientifically clarified by experts.
    • The Court observed that no one will be allowed to “touch the Aravallis” until the matter is conclusively settled.

    About the Aravalli Range

    • One of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world
    • Extends across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi
    • Acts as:
      • Natural barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert
      • Groundwater recharge zone
      • Biodiversity hotspot
      • Climate regulator for North India

    What is the Zoo Safari Project?

    • Proposed by Haryana Government
    • Initially planned over 10,000 acres, later reduced to 3,300 acres
    • Envisioned as the world’s largest zoo safari
    • Includes:
      • Big cat zones
      • Enclosures for birds, reptiles and butterflies
    • Located in Gurgaon and Nuh districts
    • Petitioners, including retired Indian Forest Service officers and NGO “People for Aravallis”, argued that the project could further degrade the ecologically fragile region.
    [2012] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following: 1. Deep gorges 

    2. U-turn river courses 

    3. Parallel mountain ranges 

    4. Steep gradients causing land sliding 

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • NHAI proposal for sound barrier near Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary

    Why in the News?

    The National Highways Authority of India has proposed constructing a soundproof barrier wall along a highway stretch passing close to the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary in Karnataka to minimise the impact of traffic noise on wildlife.

    About Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary

    • Located near Srirangapatna, Karnataka
    • Situated on the banks of the Cauvery River
    • Declared a bird sanctuary in 1940

    What is the NHAI Proposal?

    • Construction of a sound barrier wall along a highway stretch near the sanctuary
    • The objective is to reduce vehicular noise and disturbance
    • Proposal applies to the eco sensitive zone and buffer area of the sanctuary
    • Clearance required from the National Board for Wildlife

    Why are Sound Barriers Important Near Protected Areas?

    • Noise pollution affects
      • Bird breeding behaviour
      • Nesting success
    • Feeding and migration patterns
      • Traffic movement can fragment habitats
      • Sound barriers act as mitigation measures, not expansion approvals

    Legal and Regulatory Framework

    • Wildlife clearance mandatory for projects near protected areas
    • Eco sensitive zones notified under the Environment Protection Act, 1986
    • NBWL clearance required for projects affecting wildlife habitats
    • Reflects principle of sustainable infrastructure development
    [2020] Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin? 1. Nagarhole National Park 

    2. Papikonda National Park 

    3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve 

    4. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4