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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Forest Rights Act Cells in Odisha under Central Scrutiny

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has begun inquiries after the Odisha government directed closure of several Forest Rights Act Cells and removal of staff involved in implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

    About the Forest Rights Act, 2006

    Objective

    • Recognises historical rights of:
      • Scheduled Tribes
      • Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
    • Over forest land used for habitat and livelihood.

    Types of Rights Recognised

    1. Individual Forest Rights
    2. Community Rights
    3. Community Forest Resource Rights

    Institutional Mechanism

    • Gram Sabha is the initiating authority.
    • Sub Divisional Level Committee
    • District Level Committee as final authority

    What are FRA Cells?

    • FRA Cells were created to:
      • Provide technical and clerical support
      • Maintain records
      • Digitise forest rights titles
      • Expedite processing of claims

    They were supported under:

    • DA JGUA Scheme

      • Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan
      • Launched in 2024
      • Central scheme
      • Provides additional human resources to strengthen FRA implementation

    • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana (Odisha State Scheme)

      • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana
      • State initiative to support FRA implementation

    Current Issue

    • Closure of 50 sub divisional FRA Cells.
    • Direction to clear all pending claims by March end.
    • Earlier discontinuation of district and tehsil level FRA staff.
    • Nearly 20 percent of FRA claims pending in the State.
    • Odisha has:
      • Second highest number of titles issued after Chhattisgarh.
      • Sixth highest pendency rate.
    [2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006? 

    (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 

    (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj 

    (c) Ministry of Rural Development 

    (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs

  • Japan’s Lake Suwa and the Disappearing “God’s Crossing”

    Why in the News?

    The traditional ice ridge phenomenon called “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari) on Lake Suwa in Japan has failed to appear for the seventh consecutive year, highlighting long term warming trends linked to climate change.

    Where is Lake Suwa?

    • Located in Nagano Prefecture, Japan
    • Associated with the Shinto shrine Yatsurugi Shrine
    • One of Japan’s most well documented climatic sites

    What is “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari)?

    • Traditional Belief
      • A raised ice ridge on the frozen lake surface.
      • Believed to mark the path of a deity crossing the lake.
    • Scientific Explanation
      • Occurs when: Lake surface freezes completely and Temperatures remain below minus 10°C for several days.
      • Ice expands and contracts due to temperature variation.
      • Cracks form, refreeze, and push shards upward forming a ridge.

    Climate Record Significance

    • Continuous records date back to 1443.
    • Shrine priests began systematic documentation from 1683.
    • Includes:
      • Date of full lake freeze
      • Appearance of miwatari
      • Ice thickness
      • Temperature readings

    Note: This makes Lake Suwa one of the longest continuous local climate records in the world.

    Climate Change Indicator

    • Phenomenon appeared almost every winter until the 1980s.
    • Increasing winter temperatures have reduced full lake freezing.
    • No appearance since 2018.
    • Shows impact of rising minimum temperatures.
    [2022] Which one of the following lakes of West Africa has become dry and turned into a desert? (a) Lake Victoria 

    (b) Lake Faguibine 

    (c) Lake Oguta 

    (d) Lake Volta

  • Great Nicobar Mega Project Cleared by NGT

    Why in the News?

    A special bench of the National Green Tribunal has declined to interfere with the environmental clearance granted to the ₹80,000 crore Great Nicobar Mega Infrastructure Project, citing its strategic importance and the presence of adequate safeguards.

    About Great Nicobar Island

    • The southernmost island of the Nicobar group
    • Located in the southeastern Bay of Bengal
    • Area: ~910 sq km
    • Largely covered with tropical rainforest
    • Ecologically sensitive and sparsely populated

    About the Great Nicobar Mega Project

    • Total project area: 166 sq km
    • Forest diversion: 130 sq km
    • Trees to be felled: Nearly 1 million

    Major Components:

    • International transshipment port
    • Integrated township
    • Civil and military airport
    • 450 MVA gas and solar based power plant

    Key Environmental Issues Raised

    • Violation of the Island Coastal Regulation Zone notification 2019
    • Development in prohibited ICRZ areas
    • Insufficient baseline environmental data
    • Threat to endemic biodiversity and coral reefs
      • The NGT relied on findings of a High Powered Committee constituted after its 2023 order.

    NGT’s Key Observations

    1. No part of the project falls in prohibited ICRZ areas as per committee findings
    2. Environmental clearance contains adequate safeguards
    3. Strategic importance of the project cannot be ignored
    4. Balanced approach required between ecology and development

    About Island Coastal Regulation Zone ICRZ

    • Notified under Environment Protection Act 1986
    • Regulates development in coastal areas of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands
    • Categorises areas such as ICRZ IA and IB with varying restrictions
    [2017] Which of the following is geographically closest to Great Nicobar? (a) Sumatra 

    (b) Borneo 

    (c) Java 

    (d) Sri Lanka

  • Supreme Court Stays Haryana’s Aravalli Zoo Safari Project

    Why in the news?

    • The Supreme Court of India has refused to allow the Haryana government to proceed with its proposed Aravalli Zoo Safari Project until the definition of the “Aravalli Range” is scientifically clarified by experts.
    • The Court observed that no one will be allowed to “touch the Aravallis” until the matter is conclusively settled.

    About the Aravalli Range

    • One of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world
    • Extends across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi
    • Acts as:
      • Natural barrier against desertification from the Thar Desert
      • Groundwater recharge zone
      • Biodiversity hotspot
      • Climate regulator for North India

    What is the Zoo Safari Project?

    • Proposed by Haryana Government
    • Initially planned over 10,000 acres, later reduced to 3,300 acres
    • Envisioned as the world’s largest zoo safari
    • Includes:
      • Big cat zones
      • Enclosures for birds, reptiles and butterflies
    • Located in Gurgaon and Nuh districts
    • Petitioners, including retired Indian Forest Service officers and NGO “People for Aravallis”, argued that the project could further degrade the ecologically fragile region.
    [2012] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following: 1. Deep gorges 

    2. U-turn river courses 

    3. Parallel mountain ranges 

    4. Steep gradients causing land sliding 

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • NHAI proposal for sound barrier near Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary

    Why in the News?

    The National Highways Authority of India has proposed constructing a soundproof barrier wall along a highway stretch passing close to the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary in Karnataka to minimise the impact of traffic noise on wildlife.

    About Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary

    • Located near Srirangapatna, Karnataka
    • Situated on the banks of the Cauvery River
    • Declared a bird sanctuary in 1940

    What is the NHAI Proposal?

    • Construction of a sound barrier wall along a highway stretch near the sanctuary
    • The objective is to reduce vehicular noise and disturbance
    • Proposal applies to the eco sensitive zone and buffer area of the sanctuary
    • Clearance required from the National Board for Wildlife

    Why are Sound Barriers Important Near Protected Areas?

    • Noise pollution affects
      • Bird breeding behaviour
      • Nesting success
    • Feeding and migration patterns
      • Traffic movement can fragment habitats
      • Sound barriers act as mitigation measures, not expansion approvals

    Legal and Regulatory Framework

    • Wildlife clearance mandatory for projects near protected areas
    • Eco sensitive zones notified under the Environment Protection Act, 1986
    • NBWL clearance required for projects affecting wildlife habitats
    • Reflects principle of sustainable infrastructure development
    [2020] Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin? 1. Nagarhole National Park 

    2. Papikonda National Park 

    3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve 

    4. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • [6th February 2026] The Hindu OpED: The fading of India’s environmental jurisprudence

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.

    Linkage: This question examines how the Supreme Court expanded Article 21 to include environmental rights. It links closely to the present debate on the dilution of environmental jurisprudence. 

    Mentor’s Comment

    This article examines the progressive dilution of environmental jurisprudence in India through recent judicial and regulatory developments. It analyses the shift from precautionary constitutionalism to procedural dilution in environmental governance, with reference to specific cases, statutory changes, and ecosystem impacts. The discussion is relevant for GS II (Polity), GS III (Environment), and GS IV (Ethics in governance).

    Why in the News?

    India stands at a constitutional and ecological crossroads. On 18 December 2025, changes in the EIA process allowed mining projects to receive clearance without full disclosure of location and area details. Transparency reduced. In Vanashakti vs Union of India (2025), the Supreme Court recalled its earlier ban on retrospective environmental clearances. This marked a shift from the earlier precautionary principle. Courts also permitted felling or transplantation of nearly 34,000 mangrove trees. Road expansion was approved in the fragile Himalayan ecosystem, despite landslide risks. These developments indicate growing regulatory dilution in environmental governance.

    How Has the EIA Framework Been Diluted?

    1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Simplification (2025 Policy Change): Allows environmental clearance without detailed disclosure of project location and area, reducing transparency and public scrutiny.
    2. Retrospective Clearances: Vanashakti vs Union of India (2025) reversed the earlier ban on retrospective environmental clearances. Weakens deterrence principle.
    3. Post-Facto Legalisation: Common Cause vs Union of India (2017) held that environmental offences cannot be regularised after occurrence. Later judicial leniency diluted this position.
    4. Procedural Checklist Governance: Environmental compliance increasingly treated as administrative formality rather than substantive safeguard.

    What Is the Controversy Over the Aravalli Definition?

    1. Height-Based Classification: Judicial acceptance of a 100-metre height criterion for defining Aravalli hills narrows ecological protection.
    2. Departure from 2010 Position: Earlier judicial approach resisted reductionist definitions and emphasised ecological interdependence.
    3. Precautionary Principle Legacy: Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum (1996) rejected artificial ecological limits.
    4. Constitutional Implication: Narrow definition undermines Article 21 (right to healthy environment) and Article 48A (state duty to protect environment).

    What Are the Ecological Consequences in Mangrove Regions?

    1. Judicial Authorisation: Permits felling/transplantation of ~34,000 mangrove trees for infrastructure.
    2. Ecosystem Function: Mangroves act as flood control systems, carbon sinks, and storm surge buffers.
    3. Compensatory Afforestation Logic: Plantation elsewhere fails to replicate mature ecosystem functions.
    4. Urban Ecological Risk: Dilution particularly visible in coastal urban ecology such as Mumbai.

    What Is the Impact of Infrastructure Expansion in Fragile Zones?

    1. Char Dham Highway Project: Road widening in Uttarakhand approved citing strategic defence needs.
    2. 2025 Study Finding: Identified 811 landslide zones along project corridor.
    3. Himalayan Fragility: Large-scale intervention disturbs river systems and increases landslide vulnerability.
    4. Balancing Doctrine Questioned: Flash floods and ecological disturbances raise concerns about intergenerational equity.

    How Does This Affect Constitutional Governance?

    1. Article 48A: Mandates State to conserve and enhance environment.
    2. Article 51A(g): Imposes fundamental duty on citizens to safeguard environment.
    3. Article 14: Non-arbitrariness principle challenged by differential regulatory treatment favouring strong economic actors.
    4. Public Trust Doctrine: M.C. Mehta vs Kamal Nath (1996) held natural resources are held in trust for people and cannot be privatised.
    5. Judicial Retreat: Courts historically expanded environmental rights; recent stance signals contraction.

    Is There a Fairness Deficit in Environmental Governance?

    1. Corporate Clearance Bias: Large-scale infrastructure and mining projects pass regulatory barriers more easily.
    2. Hearing Curtailment: Objections during environmental hearings treated as obstructionist.
    3. Regulatory Capture Risk: Disproportionate privileges undermine procedural fairness.
    4. Transparency Erosion: Weakens public confidence in constitutional equality.

    Way Forward

    1. Reinforce Precautionary Principle: Restore strict adherence to the precautionary approach in environmental clearances and judicial review.
    2. Strengthen EIA Transparency: Mandate full disclosure of project location, ecological impact, and cumulative assessments before approval.
    3. Institutional Accountability: Ensure independent and time-bound functioning of environmental regulatory bodies and expert committees.
    4. Protect Fragile Ecosystems: Adopt region-specific safeguards for mangroves, Himalayan zones, and ecologically sensitive areas.
    5. Uphold Constitutional Mandate: Reaffirm Articles 21, 48A, and 51A(g) through consistent judicial standards.
    6. Promote Intergenerational Equity: Balance development needs with long-term ecological security and disaster resilience.

    Conclusion

    India’s environmental jurisprudence is transitioning from expansive constitutional protection toward procedural minimalism. Narrow ecological definitions, relaxed EIA norms, and infrastructure prioritisation in fragile ecosystems weaken precautionary safeguards. Sustained dilution risks constitutional imbalance between development and ecological responsibility.

  • Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary  

    Why in the News?

    A recent faunal survey in Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary recorded several species for the first time, significantly enhancing biodiversity data of Kerala’s youngest wildlife sanctuary.

    About Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary

    • Located in Nilambur Forest Division, Kerala
    • Spread over 227.21 sq km
    • Notified as a Wildlife Sanctuary in 2020
    • Part of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot
    • Landscape ranges from low elevation tropical forests to montane ecosystems

    Key Findings

    • Birds
      • 171 bird species recorded during the survey
      • 8 species newly recorded in the sanctuary
      • Total bird species now 247
      • New records include Grey headed fish eagle, Eurasian hoopoe, Barn owl and Pallid harrier
    • Butterflies
      • 177 butterfly species documented
      • 20 new additions recorded
      • Total butterfly diversity increased to 223 species
      • Evidence of altitudinal migration observed in species like Common albatross and Lesser albatross
    • Odonates
      • 42 species recorded during the survey
      • 7 species newly added
      • Total odonate diversity now 63 species
      • Includes species such as Merogomphus tamaracherriensis and Rhodothemis rufa
    • Other Observations
      • Recorded moths, over 70 spider species and freshwater fish
      • Presence of elephant herds indicates habitat continuity and ecological integrity
    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements: 1. The leader of an elephant group is a female. 

    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months. 

    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only. 

    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • Wetlands as a National Public Good

    Why in the News?

    India marked World Wetlands Day under the theme “Wetlands and Traditional Knowledge”, and on the occasion added two new Ramsar sites—Patna Bird Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh and Chhari-Dhand in Gujarat—taking the country’s total Ramsar sites to 98.

    What are Wetlands?

    Wetlands are areas of land saturated with water either permanently or seasonally. They include lakes, ponds, marshes, floodplains, mangroves, lagoons, peatlands and man made systems like tanks and kulams.

    Key Facts and Significance

    • India has lost nearly 40 percent of its wetlands in the last three decades
    • Around 50 percent of remaining wetlands show ecological degradation
    • Wetlands act as natural flood buffers, groundwater recharge zones and water purifiers
    • They support biodiversity, fisheries, agriculture and local livelihoods
    • Coastal wetlands like mangroves reduce cyclone and storm surge impacts

    Policy and Institutional Framework

    • Wetlands Conservation and Management Rules, 2017 provide legal framework for identification, notification and protection
    • National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems focuses on planning, monitoring and outcome based restoration
    • Coastal Regulation Zone framework protects coastal wetlands
    • Ramsar designation under the Ramsar Convention gives global recognition and conservation responsibility
    • India has 98 Ramsar sites, highest in South Asia
    [2022] If rainforests and tropical forests are the lungs of the Earth, then surely wetlands function as its kidneys.” Which one of the following functions of wetlands best reflects the above statement? (a) The water cycle in wetlands involves surface runoff, subsoil percolation and evaporation. 

    (b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles and mammals thrive. 

    (c) Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining sedimentation balance and soil stabilisation. 

    (d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients.

  • [3rd February 2026] The Hindu OpeD: Wetlands as a national public good

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Comment on the National Wetland Conservation Programme initiated by the Government of India and name a few India’s wetlands of international importance included in the Ramsar Sites. 

    Linkage: The question links environmental governance with ecosystem conservation, focusing on policy design, implementation gaps, and international commitments under the Ramsar Convention. It allows integration of wetlands’ role in climate resilience, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development using current NPCA/NWCP reforms.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Wetlands are among India’s most degraded ecological assets despite being critical for water security, flood control, climate resilience, and livelihoods. This topic is important because it brings together environmental governance, federalism, disaster management, and sustainable development, making it highly relevant for GS III.

    The article is valuable for aspirants as it goes beyond laws and schemes and highlights why implementation has failed, fragmented institutions, project-based restoration, and neglect of hydrological systems. It introduces the idea of wetlands as national public goods, a strong analytical frame that can be used in mains answers to show conceptual clarity.

    Why in the News

    World Wetlands Day 2026 renews global attention on wetlands, coinciding with India’s worsening degradation record. Nearly 40% of India’s wetlands have vanished in three decades, and 50% of remaining wetlands show ecological degradation. This marks a sharp contrast with traditional community-managed systems that sustained wetlands for centuries. Despite the presence of regulatory frameworks like the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, degradation continues due to fragmented implementation, project-based restoration, and weak governance. 

    Why are wetlands ecologically and economically critical?

    1. Hydrological regulation: Supports groundwater recharge, flood buffering, and sediment control through natural flow regimes.
    2. Livelihood security: Sustains fishing, grazing, agriculture, and cultural practices across rural and peri-urban landscapes.
    3. Climate resilience: Absorbs cyclonic impacts, sea-level rise, and extreme rainfall, especially in coastal zones.
    4. Biodiversity conservation: Maintains habitats for migratory birds, aquatic species, and riparian ecosystems.

    What has driven large-scale wetland degradation in India?

    1. Land-use conversion: Replaces natural wetlands with real estate, roads, and networks, permanently altering hydrology.
    2. Encroachment pressures: Intensifies in highly populated regions due to weak land demarcation and enforcement.
    3. Hydrological disruption: Dams, embankments, canals, mining, and sand extraction block or divert natural flows.
    4. Pollution loading: Converts wetlands into sewage sinks through untreated wastewater and industrial effluents.
    5. Groundwater over-extraction: Reduces inflows, accelerates drying, and collapses ecological function.

    Why are existing policy frameworks insufficient?

    1. Fragmented governance: Distributes responsibility across departments without integrated watershed planning.
    2. Weak implementation: Lacks consistent, high-quality execution despite the presence of legal frameworks.
    3. Project-centric approach: Focuses on beautification rather than ecological functionality.
    4. Data gaps: Suffers from outdated or inaccurate cadastral maps and incomplete inventories.
    5. Limited enforcement: Fails to prevent degradation despite notification and regulatory provisions.

    How effective are current regulatory instruments?

    1. Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017: Provides a legal framework but lacks implementation consistency.
    2. National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): Shifts focus to structured planning and outcome-based management but requires stronger monitoring.
    3. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ): Aims to preserve coastal ecological integrity but faces infrastructure-driven dilution.
    4. Ramsar designation: Recognises ecological value but remains largely non-binding and incentive-oriented.

    Why are urban and coastal wetlands at special risk?

    1. Urban runoff absorption: Urban wetlands receive stormwater, sewage, and solid waste, increasing contamination.
    2. Flood buffering loss: Degradation converts wetlands into flood-prone zones rather than safety buffers.
    3. Coastal vulnerability: Mangroves and lagoons face dual pressures from landward development and rising seas.
    4. Disaster exposure: Weakens natural protection against cyclones, storm surges, and shoreline erosion.

    What governance failures constrain wetland conservation?

    1. Institutional capacity gaps: Limits state-level ability to manage complex hydrological systems.
    2. Sectoral silos: Separates water, land, urban planning, and environment decision-making.
    3. Limited accountability: Weak monitoring and absence of measurable performance indicators.
    4. Community exclusion: Undermines local stewardship and conflict resolution mechanisms.

    What pragmatic approaches can be taken?

    1. Watershed-scale planning: Ensures conservation beyond isolated wetland boundaries.
    2. Functional restoration: Prioritises ecological processes over aesthetic beautification.
    3. Demarcation and mapping: Strengthens legal clarity and dispute prevention through updated cadastral records.
    4. Infrastructure alignment: Integrates wetland protection into roads, embankments, and drainage planning.
    5. Institutional strengthening: Builds national capacity through training, accreditation, and governance reforms.

    How can technology strengthen wetland governance?

    1. Remote sensing: Enables real-time tracking of encroachment, inundation, and vegetation change.
    2. Drones and GIS: Improves mapping accuracy and monitoring frequency.
    3. Time-series analytics: Supports early warning and adaptive management strategies
    4. Revised NPCA guidelines: Allow science-based monitoring and management plans.

    Conclusion

    Wetlands cannot survive as isolated conservation projects. Treating them as national public goods demands integrated governance, functional restoration, institutional accountability, and community stewardship. India’s water security and climate resilience depend on this shift.

  • Sunabeda Wildlife Sanctuary 

    Why in the News?

    Sunabeda Wildlife Sanctuary has been declared Maoist free and is emerging as a key leopard habitat, with forest officials estimating over 70 leopards in the sanctuary.

    What does “Maoist free” mean?

    Maoist free refers to an area that has been cleared of active Maoist (Left Wing Extremist) presence and where no operational influence, camps, or armed activity of Maoist groups remains.

    About Sunabeda Wildlife Sanctuary

    • Located in Odisha, in Nuapada district
    • Declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983
    • Adjoins Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary and Sitanadi Wildlife Sanctuary
    • Forms part of an inter state forest landscape between Odisha and Chhattisgarh

    Physical Features

    • Terrain includes plateaus, deep canyons, and 11 waterfalls
    • Acts as catchment of the Jonk River
    • Jonk River is a tributary of the Mahanadi River
    • An irrigation dam constructed across the river
    • Vegetation: Dominated by Dry Deciduous Tropical Forests

    Prelims Pointers

    • Sunabeda lies in western Odisha
    • Declared sanctuary in 1983
    • Shares boundary with Udanti Sitanadi landscape
    • Part of Mahanadi river basin via Jonk River
    • Known for leopard population recovery after Maoist decline
    [2024] Consider the following statements: 

    1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season. 

    2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar. 

    3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3