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Subject: Economics

  • On improving wind energy generation

    Why in the News?

    Tamil Nadu, a leader in wind energy with turbines over 30 years old, introduced a new policy for upgrading old windmills in August 2024. However, wind energy producers opposed it, took the issue to the Madras High Court, and obtained a stay.

    What is Tamil Nadu’s wind power capacity? 

    • Installed Capacity: As of November 2023, Tamil Nadu has an installed wind energy capacity of approximately 10,377.97 MW, making it the second-largest wind energy producer in India after Gujarat. This represents about 23% of India’s total installed wind capacity.
    • Age of Turbines: Many turbines in Tamil Nadu are over 30 years old, which raises concerns about efficiency and technological advancements5.
    • Potential for Repowering: The state has a repowering potential of over 7,387 MW, which could significantly enhance its energy generation capabilities if older turbines are replaced or refurbished.

    What about national wind energy capacity? 

    • Total Potential: The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) estimates that India has a wind power potential of 1,163.86 GW at a height of 150 meters, ranking fourth globally for installed capacity.
    • Current Utilization: At 120 meters (the standard height for modern turbines), India’s potential is around 695.51 GW, with only about 6.5% currently utilized nationally and nearly 15% in Tamil Nadu.
    • Leading States: The states contributing most to India’s wind power include Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh, which collectively account for approximately 93.37% of the country’s installed capacity.

    What does the repowering and refurbishing of wind turbines mean?

    • Repowering involves replacing old turbines with new ones to enhance efficiency and output. Refurbishing includes upgrading components like gearboxes and blades to improve performance without complete replacement.
    • Regulatory Framework: The Tamil Nadu government introduced a new policy aimed at facilitating these processes. However, generators argue that the policy lacks provisions that effectively promote wind energy generation and financial viability.

    Why are wind energy generators opposing the new policy of the TN government?

    • Concerns from Generators: Wind energy generators have opposed the new “Tamil Nadu Repowering, Refurbishment and Life Extension Policy for Wind Power Projects – 2024”, claiming it does not adequately support the promotion of wind energy generation. They have approached the Madras High Court and received a stay on the policy implementation.
    • Financial Viability Issues: The opposition stems from concerns that repowered turbines will be treated as new installations without banking facilities for generated energy, impacting financial returns on investments.
      • Generators emphasize that without a commercially beneficial framework, investments in repowering will decline.

    Way forward: 

    • Revise the Policy to Ensure Financial Viability: The Tamil Nadu government should amend the policy to provide incentives like banking facilities for energy generated from repowered turbines, making the projects financially viable for investors.
    • Promote Technological Advancements and Infrastructure Upgrades: The policy should focus on facilitating the replacement of old turbines with modern, high-capacity ones and improving wind energy transmission infrastructure to harness the full potential of Tamil Nadu’s wind resources.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above bjective? Explain. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • [pib] Decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in Health in India

    Why in the News?

    National Health Accounts (NHA) data for 2021-22 shows a decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) on healthcare due to increased government health expenditure (GHE) and an enhanced public healthcare framework.

    What are NHA estimates?

    • The NHA estimates are based on the globally accepted framework of ‘A System of Health Accounts (SHA), 2011’ which facilitates inter-country comparisons.
    • This report provides a systematic description of the financial flows in India’s health system by different sources, how the money is spent, how healthcare is provided, and the nature of healthcare services that are used.

    Key Observations from the NHA 2021-22 Data:

    Details
    Decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) OOPE has decreased due to increased government investment and improved public healthcare infrastructure, making healthcare more accessible and affordable.
    Rise in Government Health Expenditure (GHE) GHE as a percentage of GDP rose from 1.13% in 2014-15 to 1.84% in 2021-22. GHE’s share of overall government spending increased from 3.94% to 6.12%, reflecting the government’s commitment to public healthcare.
    Increase in Per Capita Health Spending Per capita health spending tripled from ₹1,108 in 2014-15 to ₹3,169 in 2021-22, allowing for more investment in infrastructure, workforce, and services.
    Expansion of Social Security Expenditure (SSE) SSE on healthcare grew from 5.7% to 8.7% of Total Health Expenditure (THE), helping protect individuals from catastrophic health expenses and reducing OOPE.
    Growth of Government-Funded Insurance Schemes Programs like Ayushman Bharat and state-level health insurance schemes increased healthcare access for economically vulnerable populations, reducing reliance on personal funds.
    Foundation for Universal Health Coverage (UHC) The decline in OOPE and increased public health spending are integral to achieving UHC, aiming for equitable healthcare access for all citizens.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.

    [2019] In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of:

    (a) Digital security infrastructure

    (b) Food security infrastructure

    (c) Health care and education infrastructure

    (d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure

  • Can India get rich before growing old?

    Why in the News?

    Since liberalization opened up new opportunities, there has been a lot of excitement about India’s demographic dividend, which is the advantage of having a large working-age population but there are major challenges like the middle-income trap.

    Can India leverage its sustained economic growth?

    • Harnessing the Demographic Dividend: With a large working-age population, India has a potential advantage, but it must ensure that this workforce is employed in productive sectors, particularly by shifting labor from low-productivity agriculture to higher-productivity manufacturing and services.
    • Strengthening the Manufacturing Sector: The manufacturing sector, especially labor-intensive industries like textiles, has the potential to create millions of jobs. By addressing barriers such as complex regulations, high tariffs, and infrastructure constraints, India can boost manufacturing growth, empower women, and drive economic mobility.
    • Reforming Infrastructure and Business Environment: Improving ease of doing business, simplifying trade and labor regulations, and increasing investment in infrastructure are critical for unlocking India’s potential for sustained growth. These reforms will enable large-scale job creation and enhance India’s global competitiveness.

    Challenges arising due to the middle-income trap

    • Declining Demographic Dividend: The proportion of working-age individuals in India’s population is set to decline in the coming decade, marking the potential end of the demographic dividend. Fertility rates have dropped across various states, which means India may face an aging population sooner than expected.
    • Stagnation in Key Sectors: India has struggled to reduce its agricultural workforce in the same way China did after liberalisation, making it harder to transition people to higher-productivity industries. Despite some growth in the services sector, manufacturing has stagnated and failed to generate the necessary number of jobs, especially in labor-intensive industries.
    • Limited Economic Mobility: High levels of youth unemployment and the lack of opportunities for individuals to move up the economic ladder have hindered India’s economic progress. The country’s labor force participation rate (LFPR) remains low, particularly among women, and urban job creation has not been sufficient to absorb the growing population.
    • Infrastructure and Regulatory Bottlenecks: The business environment is constrained by complex regulations, high tariffs, cumbersome licensing procedures, and a lack of access to land, all of which prevent the manufacturing sector from thriving. India’s slow regulatory reforms have stifled growth in manufacturing, which is essential for absorbing the workforce.

    How the Manufacturing sector can help India grow?

    • Job Creation: Manufacturing, especially in labour-intensive sectors like textiles and apparel, can create large numbers of jobs. This is vital for absorbing the surplus labour from agriculture and providing employment opportunities for the youth.
      • For example, the textile and apparel industry employs 45 million people compared to just 5.5 million in IT-BPM, highlighting its potential for mass employment.
    • Women’s Empowerment: Manufacturing, particularly industries like textiles, offers significant employment to women (60-70% of factory workers), helping reduce gender disparities in the labour force.
    • Economic Mobility: By creating better job opportunities, manufacturing helps people transition from low-productivity agricultural jobs to higher-wage, more stable positions in the industrial and service sectors. This transition is key to achieving sustained economic growth and avoiding the middle-income trap.
    • Global Competitiveness: Reducing barriers to manufacturing — such as simplifying business licensing, lowering tariffs on inputs, improving access to land, and streamlining trade regulations — can help India increase its competitiveness globally. Expanding market access through free trade agreements and making the business environment more conducive to manufacturing can unlock the potential of this sector.

    Steps taken by the government: 

    • “Make in India” Initiative: Launched in 2014, this initiative aims to transform India into a global manufacturing hub by promoting domestic production, reducing regulatory hurdles, and attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) in key manufacturing sectors such as electronics, textiles, and automobiles.
    • Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India): This program focuses on reducing dependence on imports by boosting local manufacturing, especially in strategic sectors like defense, electronics, and pharmaceuticals.
      • It includes initiatives such as the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, which offers incentives for manufacturing and exporting specific products like electronics, textiles, and solar panels.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Skill Development and Workforce Transition: India must invest in targeted skill development programs to equip its labor force, particularly those transitioning from agriculture, with the necessary skills for higher-productivity manufacturing and services sectors.
    • Accelerate Regulatory and Infrastructure Reforms: To unlock the full potential of the manufacturing sector, India should expedite regulatory reforms, simplify land acquisition processes, and enhance infrastructure.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Can the strategy of regional-resource-based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India? (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • Asia Tea Alliance not in favor of GM Tea

    Why in the News?

    • The Asia Tea Alliance (ATA) resolved to reject Genetically Modified (GM) Tea in response to climate challenges affecting global tea production.
      • With India’s tea production down by 10% this year due to climate change, certain companies have advocated for GM tea.

    About Asia Tea Alliance (ATA)

    • Founded: April 19, 2019, in Guizhou, China.
    • 5 Members: India, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Japan.
    • Goals: Enhance tea trade, cultural exchange, and globally promote tea.

    About Indian Tea Industry: 

    • India is the second-largest tea producer and largest black tea producer after China, and also the fourth-largest tea exporter worldwide.
    • India is the largest consumer of black tea, accounting for 18% of global tea consumption.
    • The Indian tea industry directly employs 1.16 million workers, with an equal number indirectly associated.
    • It is governed by the Tea Board of India and under Union Government control by an Act of Parliament.
    • Geographical conditions:
      • Northeast India (including Assam), north Bengal (such as Darjeeling, Terai and the Dooars), and the Nilgiris in south India.
      • Tropical and subtropical climates, with regions concentrated in Asia, Africa, and South America favours tea cultivation.
      • It requires cool to warm temperatures (15–23°C) with at least 5 hours of sunlight daily; annual rainfall should be 150-200 cm.
    • Darjeeling Tea known as the “Champagne of teas,” for its aroma was the first to GI tag in 2004–05.

    PYQ:

    [2020] “The crop is subtropical in nature. A hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at least 210 frost-free days and 50 to 100 centimeters of rainfall for its growth. A light well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture is ideally suited for the cultivation of the crop.” Which one of the following is that crop?

    (a) Cotton

    (b) Jute

    (c) Sugarcane

    (d) Tea

  • Are CSR contributions to agriculture properly tracked?

    Why in the News?

    Ten years ago, India became the first country to legally mandate Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The section 135 of the Companies Act 2013 establishes the rules governing CSR. 

    • According to the National CSR Portal, ₹1.84 lakh crore in CSR funds was disbursed between 2014 and 2023.

    About CSR: 

    Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business practice where companies contribute to social, economic, and environmental betterment, addressing societal needs alongside their profit-making objectives.

    • In India, the minimum percentage of a company’s net profit that must be spent on corporate social responsibility (CSR) is 2%.

    Sectoral division of CSR: 

    • Education: Receives the highest CSR share (33%-40%) for building schools, scholarships, infrastructure, and vocational training.
    • Health Care: Allocates 20%-30% of CSR funds to hospitals, health camps, sanitation, and disease prevention.
    • Environmental Sustainability: Accounts for 5%-10% of CSR funds, with projects in biodiversity conservation, waste management, and renewable energy.

    CSR’s Role in Agriculture

    • Claims 10%-15% of CSR funds, targeting infrastructure, agricultural practices, and livelihood support.
    • Since the enactment of the Companies Act in 2013, which mandates CSR spending, a total of Rs 1.84 lakh crore has been disbursed in CSR funds from 2014 to 2023. 
      • These funds have increasingly targeted sustainability initiatives within agriculture, with 23% of surveyed companies prioritizing “environment and sustainability” in their CSR activities.
    • Over 90.8% of farmers involved in CSR programs reported improvements in income or risk reduction due to these initiatives.  

    How much of an impact does Agriculture have on India’s GDP? 

    • Agriculture contributes approximately 15% to 18.2% of India’s GDP, reflecting a decline from 35% in 1990-91 due to rapid growth in the industrial and service sectors. The average annual growth rate of the agricultural sector has been around 4% over the last five years. (acc to pib data)
    • Agriculture remains crucial for employment, providing livelihoods for about 42% of the population, which is significantly higher than the global average of 25%.

    What are the key requirements to improve agricultural sustainability?

    • Investment in Infrastructure: There is a pressing need for capital investment in infrastructure development, including irrigation systems, cold storage, and transportation networks to reduce post-harvest losses and improve market access.
    • Technological Advancements: Adoption of modern agricultural practices and technologies is essential. This includes better seed varieties, efficient irrigation methods, and sustainable farming techniques to enhance productivity.
    • Environmental Sustainability Initiatives: Projects focusing on water conservation, energy-efficient irrigation, and agroforestry are critical for maintaining ecological balance while improving agricultural output.

    What hinders CSR’s potential for agriculture?

    • Lack of Clear Reporting Mechanisms: One of the main obstacles is the absence of robust frameworks to track and categorize CSR funding specifically directed towards agricultural initiatives. Current reporting practices do not emphasize agriculture-related CSR activities adequately.
    • Diverse Allocation Categories: CSR activities can fall under multiple categories (e.g., gender equality, and environmental sustainability), making it difficult to isolate funds specifically aimed at agricultural sustainability. This lack of specificity hampers effective monitoring and impact assessment.
    • Need for Distinct Sector Identification: To maximize CSR contributions to agriculture, it is crucial to identify agriculture as a distinct sector within CSR activities. This would streamline funding processes and enhance transparency and accountability in how funds are utilized for agricultural development.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish Agriculture as a Separate CSR Category: Need to create a distinct sector for agriculture in CSR reporting to streamline funding, improve transparency, and enable targeted monitoring of agriculture-focused initiatives.
    • Implement Comprehensive Reporting Frameworks: The government should develop robust mechanisms for tracking CSR funds specifically allocated to agricultural projects, ensuring clear categorization and facilitating better impact assessments.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q With a consideration towards the strategy of inclusive growth, the new Companies Bill, 2013 has indirectly made CSR a mandatory obligation. Discuss the challenges expected in its implementation in right earnest. Also discuss other provisions in the Bill and their implications. (UPSC IAS/2013)

  • [pib] Development of Tuna Cluster in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

    Why in the News?

    The Department of Fisheries has notified the creation of a Tuna Cluster in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as part of the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY).

    • The A&N Islands offer significant opportunities for fisheries development with approximately 6.0 lakh square km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
    • This region has rich sea resources, particularly Tuna and Tuna-like species, with an estimated potential of 60,000 metric tons.
    • The islands’ location near Southeast Asia enables efficient sea and air trade, and the pristine waters support sustainable fishing.

    About Tuna Species and its Significance

    • Tuna are large, fast-swimming fish belonging to the Thunnini tribe within the Scombridae family.
    • Known for their streamlined bodies and remarkable agility, tuna are found in tropical and temperate oceans worldwide.
    • There are over 15 species of tuna, with some of the most well-known being Bluefin, Yellowfin, Albacore, Bigeye, and Skipjack.
    • Tuna can grow quickly and live for several decades, with species like Bluefin reaching over 450 kg in weight.
    • It is one of the most popular and valuable fish in the global seafood market, highly sought after for its flavor, texture, and nutritional value.
    • Species like Bluefin tuna are particularly valuable, often fetching high prices in markets, especially in Japan for dishes like sushi and sashimi.
    • It is rich in protein, low in saturated fat, and packed with omega-3 fatty acids, which support heart health, brain function, and inflammation reduction.
    • It also provides essential vitamins and minerals like Vitamin D, B12, iron, and selenium.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] The most important fishing grounds of the world are found in the regions where

    (a) Warm and cold atmospheric currents meet

    (b) Rivers drain out large amounts of freshwater into the sea

    (c) Warm and cold oceanic currents meet

    (d) Continental shelf is undulating

  • Forging a future of Self-sufficiency and Economic Resilience 

    Why in the News?

    Chhattisgarh, with its cultural richness and natural resources, is starting an industrial path with the 2024-29 policy.

    • This plan is part of “Amritkaal: Chhattisgarh Vision@2047” to grow self-sufficient.

    CASE STUDY: “Amritkaal: Chhattisgarh Vision@2047

    • This policy introduces special provisions for marginalized groups, including surrendered Naxals, women, and the third-gender community. This inclusivity aims to empower these groups socio-economically.
    • Specific packages are designed to support entrepreneurship among these communities through training and financial assistance, facilitating their integration into mainstream society.
    • The ‘Amritkaal’ policy classifies development areas into three groups based on their industrialization levels, ensuring that incentives are targeted towards backward areas to promote balanced growth across the state.
      • Focus on Sustainable Industries: There is a strong emphasis on promoting pollution-free industries, particularly in electric vehicle manufacturing and environmentally friendly products, ensuring sustainable growth.
      • Support for Start-ups: A dedicated fund of ₹50 crore has been allocated to support start-ups, encouraging innovation and entrepreneurship throughout the state.

    What strategies can be implemented to enhance economic resilience in communities?

    • For Targeted Training Programs: Implementing skill development initiatives tailored for marginalized groups can help them acquire the necessary skills for self-employment and entrepreneurship.
    • For Financial Assistance and Subsidies: Providing subsidized loans and financial incentives can lower barriers for starting new businesses, especially for women and the third-gender community.
    • For Establishment of Industrial Corridors: Developing industrial corridors can enhance connectivity and create a conducive environment for industries to thrive, leading to job creation and economic diversification.

    How does self-sufficiency contribute to overall economic stability?

    • Reduced Dependency: Self-sufficiency allows communities to rely less on external resources, making them more resilient to economic shocks and fluctuations in global markets.
    • Local Job Creation: By fostering local industries and entrepreneurship, self-sufficiency contributes to job creation within communities, enhancing overall economic stability.
    • Sustainable Growth: Emphasizing sustainable practices ensures that economic growth does not come at the expense of environmental degradation, promoting long-term stability.

    What role do various stakeholders play in fostering economic resilience?

    • Government: The government plays a crucial role by formulating policies that provide incentives and support for industrial development. It also facilitates training programs and infrastructure development.
    • Local Businesses and Entrepreneurs: Local businesses contribute by creating jobs and stimulating the economy. Entrepreneurs drive innovation and respond effectively to local market needs.
    • Community Organizations: NGOs and community organizations can assist in identifying the needs of marginalized groups and facilitate access to resources such as training and financial assistance.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrated Community Development Programs: Establish comprehensive programs that unite training, financial assistance, and mentorship specifically for marginalized groups.
    • Public-Private Partnerships for Infrastructure Development: Encourage collaboration between the government and private sector to develop industrial corridors and infrastructure that facilitate economic activities.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Can the strategy of regional-resource-based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India? (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • What Australian varsity study says about impact of India’s Dedicated Freight Corridors

    Why in the News?

    Dedicated Freight Corridors are boosting India’s GDP and significantly enhancing Indian Railways’ revenue, according to a recent study by Australia’s University of New South Wales.

    What are dedicated freight corridors (DFCs)?

    Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are specialized railway tracks for freight transportation, designed to improve efficiency with faster, high-capacity trains like double-stack containers and heavy-haul freight trains.

    What is the Present Status?

    • India has two main DFCs:
      • Eastern DFC (EDFC): Spanning 1,337 km from Sonnagar (Bihar) to Sahnewal (Punjab). The EDFC is operational and includes feeder routes connecting coal mines and thermal plants.
      • Western DFC (WDFC): Extends 1,506 km from Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Mumbai) to Dadri (Uttar Pradesh). The WDFC is 93% complete, serving major ports in Gujarat. Full completion is expected by December 2025.
    • As of March 31, 2024, the project has incurred costs of ₹94,091 crore, excluding land acquisition.

    What does the Australian varsity study say?

    • Conducted by the University of New South Wales, this study used a Computable General Equilibrium model to assess the WDFC’s impact, specifically from FY 2019–20.
    • The study’s findings include:
      • Reduced freight costs and travel times have decreased commodity prices by up to 0.5%.
      • The DFCs contributed to a 2.94% increase in Indian Railways’ revenue between FY 2022–23 and FY 2018–19.
      • Western regions gained significantly from reduced freight costs, which had a “social-equalizing effect,” benefiting states with lower per capita GDP.
    • Published in Elsevier, the study integrated freight costs, industry inputs, population data, and rail and road data.

    What economic benefits do Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) bring to India?

    • Improved Supply Chains: DFCs provide faster, efficient transit for freight, enhancing the supply chain for industries and logistics providers.
    • Cost Savings: Reduction in freight transport costs lowers overall logistics expenses, which can lead to price reductions for consumers.
    • Revenue Growth for Railways: DFCs have directly contributed to revenue increases, supporting the Railways’ finances.
    • Increased Freight Share: The corridors are key to meeting the National Rail Plan’s target of achieving a 45% rail share in freight by 2030.
    • Exports and Imports: Faster, dedicated freight routes boost export-import activities, as DFCs support port connectivity, particularly in the West.

    How do DFCs enhance the overall logistics and transportation infrastructure in India?

    • Decongested Rail Network: By shifting freight traffic off the main passenger routes (e.g., the Golden Quadrilateral), DFCs alleviate congestion, improving both freight and passenger rail reliability.
    • Regional Development: States along the DFC routes experience increased industrial activity due to improved logistics support, which can enhance local economies and job creation.
    • Future Corridors: Plans are underway for four additional corridors (East Coast, East-West I & II, North-South) to further expand the freight network, enhancing connectivity across the country.

    Current Operational Status and Future Outlook

    • As of now, 325 trains run daily on the DFCs, which is a 60% increase from the previous year.
    • DFC trains are faster, safer, and capable of carrying heavier loads, contributing to over 10% of Indian Railways’ total freight operations.
    • DFCCIL is conducting further research on DFCs’ economic impact, with results expected soon, which will provide deeper insights into their long-term contributions to India’s economic growth.

    Challenges related to the development of DFC: 

    • Land Acquisition Delays: Acquiring over 8,800 hectares, often privately owned and developed land, has caused setbacks, with disputes and legal cases prolonging the process.
    • Escalating Costs: Project costs have surged significantly, with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JBIC) noting that expenses have nearly doubled, raising concerns about financial viability and potential investor reluctance.
    • Technology Disputes: Differences over locomotive technology—diesel versus electric—pose delays, as stakeholders like Indian Railways and JBIC debate environmentally friendly solutions.
    • Utility and Infrastructure Challenges: Shifting utilities (power lines, water pipes) and constructing road overbridges and under-bridges add logistical complexities.
    • Funding and Financial Management: Reliance on external funding and the need for efficient resource management impact project timelines and execution stability.

    Way Forward: 

    • Streamlined Land Acquisition and Cost Management: Need to implement a centralized framework for faster land acquisition and cost oversight to mitigate delays and prevent cost escalations, ensuring project feasibility and investor confidence.
    • Technological and Funding Consensus: Need to establish clear technology standards (e.g., electric locomotives) for environmental benefits and secure diversified funding sources to reduce dependence on external financing, enabling timely completion and sustainable operations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.” Discuss in the light of India’s experience. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • Kalka-Shimla Heritage Railway Track

    Why in the News?

    • Himachal Pradesh CM has requested the Centre to consider running the Kalka-Shimla narrow-gauge railway—a UNESCO World Heritage Site—on green hydrogen to promote clean energy.
      • The CM emphasized that this initiative aligns with Himachal Pradesh’s goal of becoming a ‘green energy state’ by March 31, 2026.

    About the Kalka-Shimla Railway

    • The Kalka-Shimla Railway is a narrow-gauge railway with a width of 2 ft 6 in (762 mm).
    • It was constructed in 1898 to link Shimla with the broader Indian rail system under the guidance of chief engineer H. S. Harington.
    • The total length of the railway is approximately 96.6 km.
    • This engineering marvel features 107 tunnels, of which 102 are still in use, along with 864 bridges along its route.
    • The railway has a ruling gradient of 1 in 33 (about 3%), making it quite a steep climb in places, and it includes 919 curves, with the sharpest curve being at 48 degrees.
    • The elevation of the railway starts at 656 meters (2,152 feet) in Kalka and rises to 2,076 meters (6,811 feet) in Shimla, resulting in a height difference of 1,420 meters (4,660 feet).
    • Diesel locomotives began operation on the railway in 1955, followed by diesel-hydraulic models introduced in 1970.
    • On 8 July 2008, it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Mountain Railways of India.

    Note:

    • Three of the lines, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, and the Kalka–Shimla Railway, are collectively designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name “Mountain Railways of India”.
    • Two more, the Matheran Hill Railway and the Kangra Valley Railway, are on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
    • The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is also the only rack and pinion railway in India.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Railways, consider the following statements:

    1. The decomposition of human waste in the bio toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum.

    2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the atmosphere.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Airports where pilots could fear to land

    Why in the News?

    • The October 25, 2024, incident where a Qatar Airways Boeing 787’s landing gear sank into a collapsed ramp at Doha underscores the importance of runway safety concerns.
    • Similar risks exist in Chennai Airport’s expansion plans and the greenfield project at Parandur, where soil stability and structural integrity are critical issues that must not be overlooked.

    Background 

    • The Chennai airport expansion, initially proposed in 2007, faced design and safety issues, including unsuitable soil for a parallel runway and violations in bridge construction standards, raising concerns about infrastructure reliability and potential flooding risks in future projects.

    What are the specific challenges and risks pilots face when landing at these airports?

    • Runway Integrity: Pilots may encounter challenges if the runway or taxiways have structural weaknesses or are poorly designed, such as in the case of Doha, where the ground beneath collapsed under the aircraft’s weight.
    • Crosswinds and Weather Conditions: Airports located near water bodies or in regions with extreme weather may present challenges during landing, such as turbulence from crosswinds or sudden weather changes, increasing the risk of hard landings or runway excursions.
    • Ground Handling: The condition of the ground infrastructure, including taxiways and ramps, is critical. Pilots must be cautious of soft spots or areas not properly constructed to withstand aircraft weight, which can lead to accidents.
    • Limited Runway Width and Length: Airports with insufficient runway dimensions may restrict landing and takeoff performance for larger aircraft, posing risks during adverse conditions where longer stopping distances are required.
    • Inadequate Visual Aids: Poorly designed lighting and navigational aids can impair a pilot’s ability to assess runway conditions, especially in low visibility scenarios.
    • Safety Compliance: Non-compliance with international aviation standards during the design and construction phases may lead to operational hazards that pilots must navigate.

    How do airport design and infrastructure impact aviation safety?

    • Structural Reliability: The strength and reliability of runway surfaces directly affect safety. Insufficient ground support may lead to structural failures under heavy loads, as seen in the Doha incident.
    • Drainage Systems: Effective drainage systems are vital for preventing water accumulation on runways, which can lead to hydroplaning and loss of control during landings.
    • Environmental Considerations: The placement of airports in flood-prone areas without adequate flood management strategies can compromise safety during heavy rainfall, as experienced in Chennai.
    • Design Standards: Compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards is crucial for ensuring that airports are capable of safely accommodating various aircraft types.
    • Construction Quality: The choice of construction materials and techniques directly impacts the longevity and safety of airport infrastructure. Cost-cutting measures may lead to substandard designs.

    What measures are being taken to enhance pilot training and operational procedures at these high-risk airports? (Way forward) 

    • Enhanced Simulation Training: Pilots receive advanced simulation training to handle specific challenges associated with landing at high-risk airports, including crosswind landings and emergencies on compromised runways.
    • Regular Safety Audits: Conduct audits and inspections of airport facilities and infrastructure to ensure compliance with safety standards and identify potential hazards.
    • Real-time Weather Updates: Implementation of systems that provide pilots with real-time updates on weather conditions and runway status, helping them make informed decisions during landings.
    • Collaboration with Engineers: Continuous collaboration between pilots and airport engineers during the planning and construction phases to address potential safety issues upfront.
    • Training on Emergency Protocols: Training programs that include scenarios specific to airports with known risks, ensuring pilots are prepared for emergencies related to runway or taxiway failures.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Examine the development of Airports in India through joint ventures under Public – Private Partnership (PPP) model. What are the challenges faced by the authorities in this regard. (2017)