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Subject: Environment

  • [17th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: Belem as a test of new model of forest finance

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. What are the commitments made by India in this conference?Linkage: TFFF emerges from COP30 processes, reflecting evolving climate finance architecture under UNFCCC, especially beyond traditional commitments like REDD+ and Glasgow pledges.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) represents a paradigm shift in climate finance architecture by institutionalizing payments for forest conservation. However, it raises fundamental questions about governance, equity, and the role of indigenous communities. The Belém model provides critical insights into future global climate financing frameworks.

    What is Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)?

    The Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) is a Brazil-led global initiative designed to reward countries for maintaining standing tropical forests. Set to launch at COP30, this multi-billion-dollar fund seeks to raise $125 billion (25% public, 75% private) to generate annual returns that provide continuous financial incentives for forest conservation, aiming to make standing forests more valuable than felled ones. 

    Key Aspects of the TFFF:

    1. Funding Goal: $125 billion, with early contributions exceeding $5.5 billion from countries like Brazil, Indonesia, Norway, and Colombia.
    2. Mechanism: The initiative combines public and private investment, investing in a portfolio of bonds. The annual profits are then paid out to countries that effectively protect their forests, verified by satellite data.
    3. Indigenous Support: The facility mandates that at least 20% of the funds must go to Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs).
    4. Focus: It focuses on rewarding nations with existing low deforestation rates to keep forests standing, rather than only rewarding reduction. 

    Objectives:

    1. Permanent Conservation: Creating a self-sustaining financial model for long-term conservation rather than temporary projects.
    2. Economic Value: Assigning value to the standing forest ecosystem.
    3. Climate Action: Contributing to a 1.5°C goal by halting tropical deforestation.

    What distinguishes TFFF from earlier forest finance models?

    1. Shift in Approach: Rewards standing forests, not just avoided deforestation.
    2. Financial Structure: Ensures returns on investments, unlike donation-based REDD+ mechanisms.
    3. Scale of Funding: Mobilizes $5.5 billion initial commitments, including $3 billion from Norway.
    4. Performance Incentives: Mandates 20% of payments for indigenous and local communities.
    5. Participatory Design: Incorporates inputs from 400+ community leaders globally.

    Does the TFFF ensure inclusive and equitable governance?

    1. Governance Gap: Indigenous groups lack voting rights in core decision-making bodies.
    2. Power Asymmetry: Central governments retain control over fund allocation.
    3. Equity Concerns: Raises questions on true decentralization of financial authority.
    4. Institutional Risk: Weak local accountability may lead to elite capture of funds.
    5. Structural Inclusion Limits: Participation remains consultative, not decision-binding.

    Why is the TFFF being criticized as “colonial” in design?

    1. Intermediary Dominance: Benefits financial intermediaries over forest-dependent communities.
    2. Return-Oriented Model: Prioritizes financial returns over ecological outcomes.
    3. Structural Drivers Ignored: Fails to address agribusiness expansion, mining, oil extraction.
    4. Superficial Conservation: Risks rewarding preservation without reducing exploitation pressures.
    5. Narrative Control: Reinforces global North-South financial dependency patterns.

    Can financial mechanisms alone address forest degradation?

    1. Systemic Pressures: Infrastructure, extractive industries, and agriculture drive deforestation.
    2. Insufficient Funding: $4 per hectare (earlier proposals) inadequate for ecosystem services.
    3. Policy Disconnect: Financial flows do not align with land-use regulation reforms.
    4. Local Impact Risk: Funds may bypass communities without strong governance structures.
    5. Economic Trade-offs: Conservation competes with high-revenue extractive activities.

    How central are indigenous land rights to forest conservation?

    1. Land Rights Assertion: Indigenous communities demand recognition of territorial sovereignty.
    2. Exclusion Concerns: Many feel excluded from decision-making affecting their lands.
    3. Survival Linkage: Forest protection is tied to livelihoods and cultural identity.
    4. Global Advocacy: Calls for long-term funding supporting community governance models.
    5. Risk of Displacement: Weak safeguards may lead to land alienation and displacement.

    What institutional innovations accompany the TFFF?

    1. Digital Platform: Facilitates TFFF eligibility assessment and transparency mechanisms.
    2. Global Partnerships: Collaborates with UNDP, FAO, WWF, and GATC.
    3. Capacity Building: Supports technical assistance and peer collaboration.
    4. Conflict Safeguards: Ensures independence from governing structures to avoid conflicts of interest.
    5. Inclusion Framework: Promotes knowledge-sharing and participatory governance models.

    What determines the success of the Belém model?

    1. Delivery Mechanisms: Strong institutions ensure efficient and transparent fund utilization.
    2. Local Accountability: Strengthens community-level governance structures.
    3. Rights Integration: Secures indigenous land rights alongside financial flows.
    4. Structural Reform: Aligns conservation with broader economic and land-use policies.
    5. Outcome Orientation: Ensures funds translate into measurable ecological protection.

    Conclusion

    The TFFF represents a transition toward investment-based conservation finance, but its credibility depends on equity, governance, and structural reforms. Without integrating indigenous rights and accountability mechanisms, financial innovation alone cannot ensure sustainable forest conservation.

  • Rare ‘Dual-Sex’ Crab Discovered in Silent Valley

    Why in the News

    A rare freshwater crab species, Vela carli, found in Silent Valley National Park, has been discovered showing both male and female biological traits.

    What was discovered?

    • Scientists found three crabs exhibiting dual sexual characteristics
    • The condition is called Gynandromorphy
    • Example in this case:
    • Some body parts had male reproductive organs
    • Others had female features (gonopores)

    What is Gynandromorphy?

    • A rare biological condition where: An organism shows both male and female characteristics.
    • Usually caused by: Errors during cell division (chromosomal distribution). 
    • Important distinction:
      • Not hermaphroditism (where both reproductive organs function normally)
      • Instead, it is a mosaic of male and female tissues

    About Vela Carli

    • Vela carli is a freshwater crab species endemic to India, specifically found in the Central Western Ghats, one of the world’s richest biodiversity hotspots.
    [2013] Consider the following pairs: National Park : River flowing through the Park Corbett National Park : Ganga Kaziranga National Park : Manas Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) None

  • [16th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: Building India’s climate resilience with water at the core

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2017] Climate Change is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?Linkage: Climate change in India largely manifests through water stress, floods, glacial melt, and sea-level rise. The article links these impacts to Himalayan river instability and coastal aquifer salinisation, highlighting regional climate vulnerability.

    Why in the News?

    The COP30 Climate Summit in Belém (Brazil, 2025) introduced the first global adaptation indicators integrating Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) systems into climate accountability frameworks. Now there is a major shift in global climate governance: water systems are emerging as the central pillar of climate resilience. The outcomes of the UN Climate Conference COP30 and the Belém Adaptation Indicators place water management, sanitation, and hydrological governance at the core of adaptation strategies.

    How does climate change manifest primarily through water systems in India?

    1. Hydrological Disruptions: Climate change alters rainfall patterns, leading to extreme floods and prolonged droughts affecting urban and rural economies.
    2. Glacial Melt Impact: Himalayan glacier retreat destabilizes river systems, affecting long-term water availability for major rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
    3. Saline Intrusion: Rising sea levels cause salinisation of coastal aquifers, contaminating freshwater sources in coastal regions.
    4. Agricultural Vulnerability: Agriculture contributes ~40% of anthropogenic methane emissions, particularly from rice cultivation, livestock systems, and organic waste.
    5. Food Security Threats: Erratic monsoon cycles disrupt crop productivity and irrigation systems.

    What are Belém Adaptation Indicators?

    1. The Belém Adaptation Indicators are a set of 59-60 voluntary, global measures adopted at the COP30 climate summit in Belém, Brazil (scheduled for November 2025) to track how well countries are adapting to climate change. 
    2. Developed through a two-year UN process under the UAE-Belém Work Programme, they aim to provide a shared, practical language for monitoring resilience against climate impacts like floods, droughts, and heatwaves.

    Key Features of the Belém Adaptation Indicators are as follows:

    1. Purpose: To monitor progress toward the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) adopted under the Paris Agreement, focusing on whether communities are becoming safer and better able to cope with climate threats
    2. Focus Areas: The measures look at essential sectors such as water security, food systems, health, housing, early warning systems, ecosystems, and local economies
    3. Scope: The indicators emphasize protecting vulnerable populations, including women, indigenous groups, and people with disabilities
    4. Voluntary Nature: They are designed to be flexible rather than a rigid top-down mandate, allowing countries to adapt them to their national circumstances.

    How do Belém Adaptation Indicators redefine climate governance?

    1. Climate-Resilient Water Systems: Focus on reducing water scarcity and increasing resilience against floods and droughts.
    2. Universal Drinking Water Access: Ensures safe drinking water availability for all communities.
    3. Climate-Resilient Sanitation Infrastructure: Strengthens sanitation systems capable of functioning during extreme climate events.
    4. Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems: Establishes universal early warning coverage by 2027.
    5. Hydrometeorological Capacity: Strengthens meteorological monitoring and national vulnerability assessments by 2030.

    How is India strengthening water governance to build climate resilience?

    1. Institutional Consolidation: Establishment of the Ministry of Jal Shakti (2019) integrates water governance across sectors.
    2. Water Vision 2047: Aligns national water policy with sustainability, equity, and climate resilience goals.
    3. Aquifer Mapping Programme: National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM 2.0) advances aquifer-level planning based on hydrogeological data.
    4. River Rejuvenation: National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) expands focus beyond sewage treatment to biodiversity restoration and river basin management.
    5. Integrated Water Management: Encourages linking scientific hydrology with policy planning.

    What systemic risks threaten India’s climate-water resilience?

    1. Unequal Water Distribution: Water scarcity remains acute and unevenly distributed across regions.
    2. Water-Linked Disasters: Most climate disasters in India are water-related (floods, droughts, cyclones).
    3. Fragile Adaptation Finance: Global climate finance pathways remain uncertain despite projections of $1.3 trillion annually by 2035.
    4. Recovery Bias: Lack of predictable finance shifts focus toward post-disaster recovery rather than long-term resilience planning.
    5. Infrastructure Stress: Water supply systems require climate stress testing and diversification of water sources.

    Why is digital fragmentation a challenge for climate-water governance?

    1. Fragmented Data Systems: Hydrological and meteorological datasets remain distributed across institutions without integration.
    2. Limited AI-Driven Decision Support: Despite large datasets, real-time AI integration in governance remains weak.
    3. Planning Disconnect: Water data is rarely linked to budgeting, crop advisories, insurance mechanisms, or disaster response systems.
    4. Need for Interoperable Platforms: Integration of hydrological data, crop advisory systems, insurance frameworks, and financial flows is essential.

    How can India lead global climate adaptation through water governance?

    1. Policy Convergence: Align national missions such as drinking water coverage, irrigation efficiency, and urban water reforms with climate adaptation.
    2. Digital Public Infrastructure: Utilize India’s strength in digital governance systems to integrate climate-water datasets.
    3. Operational Adaptation: Shift from infrastructure creation to functional system resilience.
    4. Global South Leadership: Demonstrate scalable climate adaptation models applicable to other developing countries.

    Conclusion

    Water systems are emerging as the operational backbone of climate adaptation. India possesses strong institutional foundations, including water governance reforms, digital infrastructure, and river restoration programmes. However, translating policy ambition into measurable climate resilience requires integrating hydrological data, strengthening climate finance, and ensuring equitable water distribution. By aligning national missions with global adaptation frameworks, India can emerge as a leader in climate-resilient water governance for the Global South.

  • Ice patches on melting glaciers greater threat than thought: ISRO scientists

    Why in the News

    A new study by scientists from the Indian Space Research Organisation has identified exposed ice patches on retreating Himalayan glaciers as a key precursor to flash floods. The study examined the August 5, 2025 Dharali flash flood in Uttarakhand that killed nine people and devastated settlements along the Bhagirathi river valley. Satellite imagery revealed exposed ice patches in the nivation zone of the Srikanta glacier shortly before the disaster. (Nivation is defined as the erosion of the ground beneath and around a snow bank, primarily resulting from the processes of alternate freezing and thawing.) This indicates accelerated deglaciation and unstable cryosphere conditions. This finding marks an important shift in understanding Himalayan hazards: disasters may originate not only from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) but also from smaller, previously overlooked cryospheric instabilities linked to warming temperatures.

    What are exposed ice patches?

    1. Exposed ice patches are areas of ancient, stable ice that have become visible on the surface of a glacier or mountain slope after their protective covering of seasonal snow and firn (intermediate ice) has thinned or melted away. 
    2. Unlike the main body of a glacier, which flows like a slow-moving river, these patches are often stationary and act as “prehistoric freezers”

    Reasons for their formation are as follows:

    1. Thinning Insulation: Warmer temperatures reduce the layers of snow and firn that normally insulate the deeper ice.
    2. Ablation: During the ablation period (when a glacier loses more ice/snow than it gains), these patches may emerge on steep, shaded slopes, particularly in nivation hollows where snow traditionally lingers year-round.
    3. Wind Scouring: In some regions, like Antarctica, strong winds can strip away top layers to reveal bright blue patches of older, denser ice.

    How do exposed ice patches signal accelerated glacier retreat in the Himalayas?

    1. Deglaciation indicator: Exposed ice patches in the Srikanta glacier’s ablation zone indicate thinning seasonal snow and firn cover due to rising temperatures.
    2. Satellite evidence: Pre-event satellite imagery showed persistent exposed ice patches on north-northeast facing slopes where snow normally accumulates.
    3. Cryosphere instability: Loss of insulating snow layers accelerates melting and structural weakening of glaciers.
    4. Regional warming effect: Similar processes have been documented in other warming cryosphere regions including the Canadian Arctic and Greenland.

    What role did nivation processes play in triggering the Dharali flash flood?

    1. Nivation process: Erosion of ground beneath snowbanks caused by alternate freezing and thawing cycles.
    2. Formation of nivation hollows: Repeated snow accumulation creates depressions which deepen over time.
    3. Structural instability: In steep Himalayan terrain, nivation hollows accumulate ice, meltwater, and debris.
    4. Trigger mechanism: Collapse of an exposed ice patch within the nivation zone of the Srikanta glacier released meltwater and debris.
    5. Result: Sudden downstream debris flow triggered the Dharali flash flood.

    Why are Himalayan glaciers increasingly vulnerable to cryosphere hazards?

    1. Rapid glacier retreat: Himalayan glaciers are losing ice due to rising regional temperatures.
    2. Snow and firn thinning: Seasonal snow cover that stabilizes glaciers is shrinking.
    3. Steep mountain terrain: High relief areas amplify instability and debris flow risks.
    4. Glacier fragmentation: Smaller unstable ice masses form as glaciers shrink.
    5. Emerging hazard types: Hazards now include not only GLOFs but also ice collapses, debris flows, and cryosphere mass movements.

    How do satellite observations improve early warning systems for glacier disasters?

    1. Pre-event detection: Satellite imagery identified exposed ice patches before the Dharali flood.
    2. Landscape monitoring: Remote sensing helps track glacier retreat and unstable cryosphere zones.
    3. Hazard reconstruction: Earth observation data reconstructs sequences leading to disasters.
    4. Early warning potential: Monitoring exposed ice patches could provide advance signals of possible cryosphere hazards.

    Why must disaster monitoring extend beyond glacial lakes to smaller cryosphere instabilities?

    1. Focus shift: Traditional monitoring emphasizes glacial lake outburst floods.
    2. Overlooked hazards: Small-scale cryosphere instabilities can trigger similar destructive floods.
    3. Regional prevalence: Similar geomorphological conditions exist across much of the Himalayan arc.
    4. Policy implication: Disaster risk assessment must include nivation zones and exposed ice patches.

    Conclusion

    Rapid glacier retreat in the Himalayas is generating new cryosphere hazards beyond traditional glacial lake outburst floods. The Dharali flash flood demonstrates how exposed ice patches and nivation-zone instability can trigger sudden disasters in high-mountain regions. Strengthening satellite monitoring, hazard mapping, and climate-resilient disaster management systems is essential to reduce risks and protect vulnerable Himalayan communities.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

    Linkage: The Dharali flash flood from glacier ice-patch collapse highlights the need for disaster resilience in fragile Himalayan regions facing climate-induced hazards. It underlines the importance of Sendai Framework goals like risk monitoring, early warning systems, and satellite-based glacier surveillance.

  • Kashmir Promotes Almond and Tulip Bloom to Revive Tourism

    Why in the News

    The government of Jammu and Kashmir is promoting almond blossoms and tulip blooms to revive tourism in Kashmir after a decline in tourist arrivals following a terror attack in 2025.

    Key Initiative

    Chief Minister Omar Abdullah will inaugurate a Spring Festival at Badamwari Garden to showcase blooming almond trees and attract tourists.

    Badamwari Almond Garden

    • Located in Srinagar.
    • Spread over 300 kanals (about 37.5 acres).
    • Dates back to before the 14th century.
    • Situated near the Hari Parbat area.

    Tulip Festival

    • Tulip is a flowering plant belonging to the genus Tulipa in the lily family (Liliaceae). It is one of the most popular ornamental flowers in the world, known for its bright colors and simple cup shaped petals.
    • The Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip Garden will open to visitors from March 16.
    • Key features:
      • 1.8 million tulip bulbs planted.
      • 70–75 tulip varieties.
      • Often compared to the Keukenhof.
    • In April 2025, the garden attracted 8.25 lakh visitors.

    Tourism Impact

    • Tourism contributes about 7% to Jammu and Kashmir’s Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP).
    • Tourist arrivals dropped from 26 lakh in 2024 to 11.16 lakh in 2025 after the Pahalgam terror attack and subsequent security concerns.
    • Following a security audit, major tourist destinations have reopened.

    Objective of the Initiative

    • Revive tourism in Kashmir.
    • Promote spring flower tourism similar to Japan’s cherry blossom festivals.
    • Highlight Kashmir’s floriculture and natural beauty.
    Consider the following plants: Groundnut Horse-gram Soybean How many of the above belong to the pea family? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

  • Behind an early summer is a lack of winter rains

    Why in the News?

    An unusual surge in temperatures across north and north-western India during February-March has raised concerns about shifting seasonal patterns. Several regions recorded temperatures 8-13°C above normal, bringing heat-wave-like conditions weeks before the usual onset of summer. The phenomenon has been linked to deficient winter rainfall and weak Western Disturbances, which are critical for regulating winter climate in north India. 

    Why is India witnessing unusually high temperatures early this year?

    1. Temperature Anomaly: Several regions recorded temperatures 8-13°C above normal, reaching heat-wave-like conditions in February-March.
    2. Early Heat Conditions: Warm weather replaced cool winter days earlier than usual in northern and western India.
    3. Rare Occurrence: A similar situation occurred three years ago, but such an early onset of summer remains relatively uncommon.
    4. Regional Evidence:
      1. Shimla: 25.3°C (March 2026, highest recorded till March 8).
      2. Pahalgam: 22.7°C.
      3. Gulmarg: 17.2°C.
      4. Srinagar: 24.7°C.

    Climatological Significance: Heat waves are generally uncommon in high-altitude regions such as Shimla in March.

    How did weak Western Disturbances influence the winter climate?

    1. Western Disturbances: East-moving rain-bearing weather systems originating beyond Iran and drawing moisture from the Mediterranean Sea and other water bodies.
    2. Seasonal Importance: These systems normally bring winter rainfall and snowfall across northern India.
    3. Deficiency Since November 2025: Reduced frequency and intensity of Western Disturbances led to lower winter precipitation.
    4. IMD Observation: Meteorologists noted lack of wind convergence between westerly and easterly winds, reducing moisture transport into north and central India.
    5. Temperature Regulation: Winter precipitation normally moderates temperatures by maintaining soil moisture and atmospheric cooling.

    Why was the winter of 2026 considered unusually dry?

    1. Rainfall Deficit: All-India rainfall during January-February was only 16 mm, which is 60% below normal.
    2. Historical Context: February 2026 became the third driest February since 1901.
    3. Snowfall Decline: Both snowfall and rainfall remained subdued across Himalayan regions.
    4. Meteorological Cause: Persistent lack of favourable weather systems during winter months.

    How does a dry winter accelerate the onset of summer?

    1. Soil Moisture Deficit: Reduced rainfall leaves soil dry and unable to moderate temperature increases.
    2. Evaporation Mechanism: Moist soils normally evaporate moisture before heating up, delaying temperature rise.
    3. Rapid Surface Heating: Dry soils heat faster, increasing land surface temperature and accelerating summer conditions.
    4. Climate Feedback: Dry land conditions amplify regional warming and heat stress.

    What are the implications for agriculture and water resources?

    1. Impact on Rabi Crops: Sudden temperature spikes affect mustard, wheat, gram, groundnut, sesame, sorghum, and sunflower.
    2. Horticulture Stress: Crops such as potatoes and apples may suffer due to heat stress.
    3. Irrigation Demand: Farmers have been advised to increase irrigation frequency to maintain soil moisture.
    4. Water Resource Pressure: Increased irrigation demand may strain local groundwater and water reserves.

    What do temperature records indicate about changing climatic patterns?

    1. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures in Himalayan regions during early March indicate increasing climate variability.
    2. Comparison with Past Years:
      1. 2026: Shimla 25.3°C, Pahalgam 22.7°C, Gulmarg 17.2°C, Srinagar 24.7°C.
      2. 2025: Shimla 24.4°C, Pahalgam 20.4°C.
      3. 2024: Shimla 24.8°C.
    3. Climate Signal: Frequent anomalies suggest greater unpredictability in seasonal transitions.

    Conclusion

    The early onset of summer in India highlights the critical role of winter rainfall and Western Disturbances in maintaining seasonal balance. Reduced precipitation has accelerated land heating and increased agricultural vulnerability. Strengthening climate monitoring, improving irrigation management, and integrating seasonal forecasting into agricultural planning are essential to mitigate the impacts of such climatic anomalies.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How will Himalayan and coastal states of India be affected?

    Linkage: The early onset of summer due to weak winter rains and Western Disturbances reflects climate variability affecting Himalayan regions, highlighting changing temperature and precipitation patterns.

  • FSI Stops AI-Based Deforestation Alerts to States

    Why in the News

    The Forest Survey of India (FSI) has stopped issuing fortnightly deforestation alerts through its AI-based Anavaran Deforestation Alert System. The portal has not been updated since November 2025.

    What was the Anavaran System?

    • An AI and satellite-based monitoring system launched in January 2024.
    • Provided deforestation alerts every 15 days to states.
    • Alerts included precise geographic coordinates where forest cover loss was detected.

    Purpose:

    • Enable quick field inspections by forest officials.
    • Improve near-real-time monitoring of deforestation.

    Technology Used

    The system used remote sensing and machine learning:

    • Google Earth Engine
    • Sentinel-2
    • Sentinel-1

    Features:

    • Optical satellite imagery (Sentinel-2).
    • Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data from Sentinel-1 for cloudy or monsoon conditions.
    • Machine learning algorithms compared before-and-after images to detect forest loss.

    Performance of the System

    • 12,351 alerts issued between Jan 2024 and Oct 2025.
    • Average alerts per month: 561
    • Alerts increased to 1,028 per month during Nov–March, when deforestation peaks.

    Why Alerts Were Stopped

    • According to FSI officials:
      • The system was only a pilot project.
      • The government is currently reviewing feedback from states on its usefulness.
      • Active monitoring reportedly stopped in January 2026.

    Comparison with Global Systems

    • The system was considered similar to Terra‑I, used in countries like Peru. However, Anavaran had higher spatial resolution:
      • 10–20 metre resolution (Sentinel satellites)
      • Terra-I: 250 metre resolution

    Other Forest Monitoring Systems in India

    • Van Agni Portal
    • Fire alerts using satellite data have been operational since 2004.
    [2015] In which of the following activities are Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites used? 1. Assessment of crop productivity 2. Locating ground water resources 3. Mineral exploration 4. Telecommunications 5. Traffic studies Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 and 5 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • Cheetah Population in India Crosses 50 Under Project Cheetah

    Why in the News

    A Namibian cheetah Jwala gave birth to five cubs at Kuno National Park, taking India’s total cheetah population to 53. The development is a major milestone under Project Cheetah.

    Key Highlights

    • Five cubs born to Namibian cheetah Jwala.
    • Recently, another cheetah Gamini delivered four cubs at the same park.
    • Total cheetah population in India: 53.
    • Indian-born cubs: 33.
    • Successful litters in India: 10.

    About Project Cheetah

    • Launched on 17 September 2022 by Narendra Modi.
    • Eight cheetahs were translocated from Namibia to Kuno National Park.
    • Aim: Reintroduce cheetahs in India after extinction.

    Background

    • Cheetahs became extinct in India in 1952 due to hunting and habitat loss.
    • The species is the fastest land animal.

    Objectives of the Programme

    • Restore the cheetah population in India.
    • Re-establish a functional grassland ecosystem.
    • Promote wildlife tourism and conservation awareness.
    • Improve genetic diversity and species recovery.
    [2024] Consider the following statements: Lions do not have a particular breeding season. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Silent Valley Bird Survey

    Why in the News
    A recent bird survey in Silent Valley National Park recorded 192 bird species, highlighting the park’s rich avian biodiversity.

    Key Findings

    • Survey dates: March 6 to 8, 2026
    • Organisers:
      • Kerala Forest Department
      • Malabar Natural History Society
    • Participants: About 85 birdwatchers from Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
    • Covered both core and buffer zones of the park.

    Important Observations

    • Total species recorded: 192 bird species
    • Rare migratory birds: Asian house martin and Western house martin. 

    Endemic Western Ghats species recorded:

    • Nilgiri laughingthrush
    • Black-and-orange flycatcher
    • White-bellied treepie
    • Nilgiri pipit
    • White-bellied blue flycatcher
    • Nilgiri sholakili (Nilgiri blue robin)

    About Silent Valley National Park

    • Located in Palakkad.
    • Part of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot.
    • Known for tropical evergreen forests and high endemism.
    [2020] With reference to India’s biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Graychinned minivet and White-throated redstart are: (a) Birds (b) Primates (c) Reptiles (d) Amphibians

  • 204 of 238 Indian Cities Failed to Meet Air Quality Standards

    Why in the News

    A report by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) analysing Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data found that 204 out of 238 Indian cities exceeded national air quality standards during winter 2025–26.

    Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA)Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) is an independent international research organisation that focuses on energy, air pollution, and climate change analysis. It is widely cited in global media and policy discussions for its data-driven assessments of fossil fuel use, emissions, and air quality impacts.

    Key Findings of the Report

    • Most Polluted Cities
      • Top cities with the highest PM2.5 concentration: Ghaziabad – 172 µg/m³, Noida – 166 µg/m³, and Delhi – 163 µg/m³
      • Other highly polluted cities include: Greater Noida, Bahadurgarh, Dharuhera, Gurugram, Bhiwadi, Charkhi Dadri, and Baghpat.
      • Most cities in the top 10 are from Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
    • Megacity Air Pollution Levels
    • Average PM2.5 concentrations in major Indian cities:
      • Delhi – 163 µg/m³
      • Kolkata – 78 µg/m³
      • Mumbai – 48 µg/m³
      • Chennai – 44 µg/m³
      • Bengaluru – 39 µg/m³ (slightly below national limit)
    • Cleanest City
      • The cleanest city recorded was: Chamarajanagar – 19 µg/m³
      • Eight of the ten cleanest cities were in Karnataka, with one each in Madhya Pradesh and Meghalaya.

    PM2.5 Explained

    PM2.5 (Particulate Matter ≤2.5 micrometers)

    • Extremely fine particles in the air.
    • Can enter lungs and bloodstream.
    • Causes: Respiratory diseases, Heart disease, and Premature deaths.

    Prelims Pointers

    • CPCB functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) specify permissible pollutant levels in India.
    • PM2.5 is considered one of the most dangerous air pollutants due to its ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory system.
    [2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 µg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 µg/m³. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only