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Subject: Environment

  • Our water challenge is stark. Here are four ways to reimagine the solutions

    Why in the News?

    India’s water crisis has reached a critical threshold, with per capita availability nearing scarcity levels and over 80% districts exposed to hydro-meteorological disasters. A major shift is being proposed, from viewing water as a free resource to treating it as a strategic economic asset.

    Why is India’s water crisis structurally alarming?

    1. Resource Imbalance: India supports 18% global population with 4% freshwater, indicating structural scarcity.
    2. Declining Availability: Per capita availability dropped from 1,816 (2001) to 1,486 cubic metres (2021); projected to approach 1,000 cubic metres by 2050.
    3. Climate Variability: Monsoon patterns exhibit unpredictability, with increased rainfall intensity but fewer rainy days, causing floods and droughts simultaneously.
    4. Disaster Vulnerability: Over 80% of the population lives in districts prone to hydro-meteorological disasters.
    5. Groundwater Stress: India is the largest extractor of groundwater globally, leading to depletion and unsustainable use.

    How does mismanagement aggravate the water crisis?

    1. Agricultural Inefficiency: Agriculture consumes ~90% of freshwater, dominated by water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane.
    2. Policy Distortions: Subsidies on water, power, and fertilizers incentivize inefficient usage.
    3. Urban Mismanagement: Urbanization increases runoff, reduces groundwater recharge, and intensifies flooding risks.
    4. Wastewater Neglect: Only 28% of wastewater is treated, leading to pollution and loss of reusable water.
    5. Infrastructure Deficit: Lack of integrated water systems limits storage, reuse, and efficient distribution. 

    Why must water be redefined as an economic resource?

    1. Economic Transformation: Recognizing water as a strategic national asset ensures efficient allocation across sectors.
    2. Governance Shift: Moves from free-resource perception to regulated and priced commodity.
    3. Incentive Alignment: Pricing mechanisms discourage overuse and encourage conservation.
    4. Sectoral Efficiency: Enables prioritization of high-value economic uses over inefficient consumption. 

    What broad strategic approach is required before detailing specific solutions?

    1. Paradigm Shift in Water Governance: Recognises water as a finite economic and ecological resource, not a free good, ensuring efficient allocation and accountability.
    2. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): Ensures holistic coordination across sectors (agriculture, urban, industry) and scales (local to national) for sustainable use.
    3. Demand-side Management Focus: Prioritises efficiency and conservation over supply expansion, especially in agriculture and urban consumption.
    4. Ecosystem-based Approach: Strengthens natural water systems (forests, wetlands, soils) to enhance recharge, storage, and resilience.
    5. Decentralised and Participatory Governance: Empowers local institutions, communities, and stakeholders for context-specific water management.
    6. Technology and Data-driven Management: Facilitates real-time monitoring, digital water accounting, and evidence-based policymaking.
    7. Circular Economy Orientation: Promotes reuse, recycling, and recovery of wastewater, reducing pressure on freshwater sources.

    How can green water and ecosystem-based approaches help?

    1. Green Water Concept: Soil moisture (rainfed water) constitutes ~60% of rainfall storage globally, critical for agriculture.
    2. Soil Degradation: Chemical-intensive farming reduces soil’s water retention capacity.
    3. Nature-based Solutions:
      1. Mulching, no-till farming: Enhances moisture retention
      2. Agroforestry: Improves soil structure and water holding
    4. Forest Conservation: Protects upstream ecosystems and ensures downstream water availability.
    5. National Green Water Mission: Enables integrated landscape-based water management. 

    How can agriculture transition towards water efficiency?

    1. Crop Diversification: Shift from water-intensive crops to millets, pulses, oilseeds.
    2. Irrigation Reform: Adoption of micro-irrigation (drip, sprinkler) systems.
    3. Subsidy Rationalisation: Reduces distortion in cropping patterns.
    4. Water Productivity: Aligns cropping with agro-climatic suitability.
    5. Data Insight: Agriculture uses nearly 90% water, yet contributes disproportionately lower economic output. 

    What role can circular water economy play?

    1. Wastewater Reuse: Only 28% treated currently, indicating large untapped potential.
    2. Economic Potential: Treated wastewater could unlock a ₹3.2 lakh crore market by 2047.
    3. Industrial Reuse: Reduces freshwater demand in industries.
    4. Biogas & Fertiliser Recovery: Converts waste into energy and nutrients.
    5. Private Participation: Encourages PPP models in wastewater treatment infrastructure.

    How should urban water management be redesigned?

    1. Sponge Cities Model: Cities absorb, store, and reuse rainwater through green infrastructure.
    2. Blue-Green Infrastructure:
      1. Wetlands
      2. Urban forests
      3. Permeable surfaces
    3. Flood Mitigation: Reduces runoff and urban flooding risks.
    4. Case Example: Restoration of ecosystems like Yamuna Biodiversity Park enhances resilience.
    5. Urban Expansion Challenge: Built-up area has increased by one-third since 2005, reducing natural recharge.

    What governance reforms are required in water sector?

    1. Decentralised Governance: Empowers local bodies for water management.
    2. Digital Infrastructure: Enables real-time water accounting and monitoring.
    3. Transparent Pricing: Ensures cost recovery and discourages wastage.
    4. Regulatory Framework: Strengthens enforcement against illegal extraction.
    5. Swachh Bharat Mission 3.0: Targets decentralized wastewater management. 

    Conclusion

    India’s water crisis reflects systemic inefficiencies rather than absolute scarcity. A shift towards economic valuation, ecosystem restoration, efficient agriculture, and circular water systems is essential. Integrated governance and behavioural change remain critical for long-term sustainability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Why is the world today confronted with a crisis of availability of and access to freshwater resources?

    Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of water resource distribution, scarcity, and management challenges under GS1 (Geography) and GS3 (Environment & Agriculture). It directly aligns with India’s water crisis driven by overuse, mismanagement, and climate variability, as highlighted in the article.

  • MC Mehta VS Union of India: Writ petition No. 13029

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has recently closed the vehicular pollution Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in M.C. Mehta vs Union of India, ending nearly 40 years of continuous judicial oversight through more than 1,000 orders. This is significant because it marks the conclusion of one of India’s earliest and most influential environmental litigations, which introduced continuous mandamus as a governance tool and forced systemic changes like Delhi’s transition to CNG-based public transport.

    What triggered judicial intervention in environmental governance?

    1. Severe pollution crisis: Delhi faced extreme vehicular pollution in the 1980s–90s, with rising health risks and poor regulatory response.
    2. Administrative failure: Weak enforcement of environmental norms necessitated judicial oversight
    3. Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Enabled citizen-led intervention, expanding access to environmental justice. 

    What is the M.C. Mehta Vs Union of India Case?

    M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Writ Petition 13029/1985) is a landmark Supreme Court of India case that addressed air pollution in Delhi, leading to significant reforms like the introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for commercial vehicles and the phasing out of older vehicles. Filed in 1985, this PIL resulted in over 40 years of continuous judicial oversight.

    Which major environmental PILs were filed by M.C. Mehta?

    1. Ganga Pollution Case: Targeted industrial discharge into the Ganga; led to closure of polluting tanneries.
    2. Taj Trapezium Case: Addressed air pollution damaging the Taj Mahal; mandated cleaner fuels in surrounding areas.
    3. Delhi Deindustrialisation Case: Ordered relocation/closure of hazardous industries in Delhi
    4. Vehicular Pollution Case (1985): Focused on rising emissions from vehicles in Delhi; longest-running case. 

    How did the Supreme Court operationalise ‘continuing mandamus’?

    1. Ongoing jurisdiction: Keeps case open for decades with periodic hearings.
    2. Compliance monitoring: Requires reports from agencies and imposes deadlines.
    3. Institutional creation: Leads to formation of EPCA for NCR pollution control.
    4. Policy enforcement: Converts judicial directions into binding governance actions. 

    What is the timeline of key Supreme Court orders in the vehicular pollution case?

    1. 1994-95 orders: Recognition of vehicular pollution crisis; directives for pollution control measures.
    2. 1996: Orders for relocation of industries and stricter emission norms.
    3. 1998: Landmark direction to introduce CNG-based public transport in Delhi.
    4. 2002: Deadline enforced; Delhi buses shifted to CNG-first large-scale clean fuel transition.
    5. 2004-05: Expansion of emission standards and fuel quality norms.
    6. 2015: Directions on pollution monitoring and stricter compliance mechanisms.
    7. 2018: BS-VI fuel transition roadmap accelerated.
    8. 2020-24: Focus on stubble burning, construction dust, and multi-source pollution.
    9. 2024-25: Closure of case after decades of monitoring. 

    What were the major outcomes of the M.C. Mehta vehicular pollution case?

    1. Fuel transition: Shift from diesel to CNG in public transport reduced particulate emissions.
    2. Emission standards: Strengthened vehicular norms (BS standards evolution).
    3. Institutional mechanisms: Establishment of EPCA for monitoring pollution in NCR.
    4. Urban policy shift: Integrated pollution control into urban governance.
    5. Judicial doctrines: Reinforced polluter pays and precautionary principles. 

    What does data say about the impact of these interventions?

    1. EPCA (2014 study): Reported decline in annual average PM10 levels in Delhi compared to earlier decades.
    2. Short-term gains: Reduction in visible smoke and vehicular emissions post-CNG transition.
    3. Long-term trend: Pollution levels rose again due to urbanisation and increased vehicle numbers. 

    Why does Delhi still face severe pollution despite judicial intervention?

    1. Implementation gaps: Weak enforcement by executive agencies.
    2. Multi-source pollution: Includes stubble burning, construction dust, and industry emissions.
    3. Vehicular growth: Rapid increase in private vehicles offsets earlier gains.
    4. Fragmented governance: Multiple agencies with overlapping responsibilities.

    What are the limitations of judicial intervention in environmental governance?

    1. Separation of powers: Courts assume executive roles temporarily.
    2. Sustainability issue: Continuous monitoring cannot replace institutional governance.
    3. Reactive approach: Focuses on crisis response rather than preventive planning.
    4. Administrative dependency: Success depends on executive compliance. 

    Conclusion

    The M.C. Mehta vehicular pollution case demonstrates that judicial intervention can trigger transformative environmental reforms, but cannot sustain them independently. Durable solutions require strong institutions, coordinated governance, and behavioural change. The closure of the case marks not an end, but a transition from judicial oversight to administrative responsibility.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.

    Linkage: The M.C. Mehta cases exemplify how the Supreme Court expanded Article 21 to include the right to a clean environment, thereby constitutionalising environmental concerns. Through PILs and continuing mandamus, the Court transformed environmental protection into an enforceable fundamental right.

  • Rising CO₂ Threatens Mangrove Fish Nurseries 

    Why in the News

    • A study in AGU Advances highlights declining oxygen levels in mangrove waters due to rising CO₂.

    Key Concept: Hypercapnic Hypoxia

    • Condition of: High CO₂ + Low dissolved oxygen
    • Occurs in: Mangrove estuaries (especially low tide, tropical regions)

    Major Findings

    • By 2100:
      • Oxygen ↓ 5–35%
      • CO₂ ↑ 8–60%
    • Events will:
      • Become 15× more frequent
      • Last longer (12–24 hours at 78% sites)

    Impact on Ecosystem

    1. Fish Nurseries at Risk

    • Reduced safe time for fish entry
    • Decline in juvenile fish survival

    2. Biodiversity Loss

    • Shift away from: Large reef-associated fish
    • Affects commercially important species

    3. Fisheries Impact

    • Mangroves: Support ~20,000 extra fish/ha/year
    • ~4 million fishers depend globally
    [2012] The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this phenomenon a cause of concern? The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplankton will be adversely affected. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be adversely affected. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely affected. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be adversely affected. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • India’s Frogs: Conservation Gains through Science & Citizen Action

    Why in News

    • On World Frog Day (March 20), attention is drawn to India’s amphibians, where citizen science and conservation initiatives are helping address rising threats like climate change and habitat loss.

    Ecological Importance of Frogs

    • Act as link between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
    • Control insect populations (pests)
    • Serve as food for higher vertebrates
    • Help convert: → Insect biomass → Vertebrate biomass

    Global & Indian Status

    • As per International Union for Conservation of Nature:
      • Amphibians = most threatened vertebrates
      • 37 species extinct globally
    • India:
      • 450+ amphibian species
      • ~25% threatened
      • ~20% data deficient

    Major Threats to Frogs

    1. Disease (Historical Driver)

    • Chytridiomycosis caused by:
      • Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
      • Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
    • Affects frog skin (critical for respiration & ion balance)
    • Impact: → Affected >60% amphibians globally

    2. Climate Change (Current Major Driver)

    • Impacts 39% species
    • Causes:
      • Mismatch in monsoon timing
      • Breeding failures due to: Early rains + prolonged dry spells

    3. Habitat Loss

    • Impacts 37% species
    • Includes: Wetland loss, Deforestation, and Urbanisation. 
    [2024] Consider the following: 
    1. Butterflies 
    2. Fish 
    3. Frogs 
    How many of the above have poisonous species among them? 
    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

  • Seals Trade Safety for Food: Arctic Study 

    Why in News

    • A study published in Ecology Letters (March 2026) by University of British Columbia and collaborators shows ringed seals risk predation to access diverse food in the Arctic.

    Key Species Involved

    • Ringed seal: Primary prey species in Arctic marine ecosystems
    • Polar bear: Main predator dependent on sea ice for hunting

    Study Area & Method

    • Location: Eastern Hudson Bay (Arctic region)
    • Tracked: 26 seals and 39 polar bears
    • Tools: GPS tracking, Dive data analysis and Sea-ice mapping + fish diversity models

    Core Findings

    1. Food vs Fear Trade-off

    • Seals avoid high-risk zones (areas with many polar bears)
    • BUT:
      • Enter these zones if food diversity is high
      • Stay longer underwater (long dives) even in danger zones

    2. “Landscape of Fear” Concept

    • Animals modify behavior based on predator presence
    • Seals:
      • Move quickly through risky areas
      • Adjust diving patterns depending on threat level

    3. Portfolio Effect (Very Important)

    • Seals prefer diverse prey instead of a single food source
    • Similar to financial diversification:
      • Reduces risk of food scarcity in changing environments

    4. Behavioral Adaptations

    • Possible ability to: Detect predators (e.g., listening for polar bears on ice)
    • Limitation: Hard to scientifically capture such micro-behaviors

    5. Climate Change Impact

    • Melting sea ice leads to:
      • Altered predator-prey interactions
      • Increased bear density in smaller ice areas
      • Entry of new predators like killer whales

    Key Ecological Insight

    • Wildlife survival depends on dual factors:
      1. Food availability
      2. Predation risk
    [2015] The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of: (a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence (b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim (c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antartic region (d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region

  • [18th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: A bit of blur over India’s new carbon credit plan

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2025] What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change?Linkage: The PYQ covers climate change mitigation and environmental technology (GS 3), especially emission reduction strategies like CCUS. The article applies this through India’s CCUS-focused carbon credit policy, highlighting tension with agriculture-based carbon markets.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) initiative aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet 2070 net-zero targets, focusing on high-emitting industrial sectors. The Union Budget 2026-27 announced a ₹20,000 crore scheme to scale up CCUS deployment, specifically targeting power, steel, cement, refineries, and chemical industries. The Budget 2026 announcement highlights the tension between industrial decarbonisation via CCUS and nature-based carbon markets involving agriculture. This raises issues of policy clarity, sectoral prioritisation, and climate governance design.

    What is the core objective of India’s carbon credit plan?

    1. Industrial Decarbonisation Focus: Targets sectors like power, steel, cement, refineries, and chemicals where emissions are concentrated and difficult to eliminate.
    2. CCUS Deployment: Ensures capture of CO₂ from industrial flue gases and its utilization or storage underground.
    3. Technology-led Transition: Supports R&D roadmap released by Department of Science and Technology (Dec 2025).
    4. Budgetary Commitment: ₹20,000 crore over five years for large-scale CCUS deployment.

    Why is agriculture excluded from CCUS strategy?

    1. Emission Characteristics: Agricultural emissions (methane, nitrous oxide) are diffuse and biologically mediated.
    2. Technological Limitation: CCUS is suited for point-source emissions, not dispersed sources like farms.
    3. Policy Segregation: Clear distinction between CCUS (industrial) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) via soil, biochar, agroforestry.
    4. Role of Agriculture: Positioned under carbon sequestration pathways, not industrial capture.

    What is causing confusion around ‘farmer carbon credits’?

    1. Terminology Overlap: Use of “carbon credit programme” creates perception of inclusivity across sectors.
    2. Parallel Narratives: Media and discourse suggest farmers can directly earn credits under Budget allocation.
    3. Existing Voluntary Markets: Agriculture and forestry projects already generate credits for domestic and global buyers.
    4. Policy Communication Gap: Lack of clear distinction between regulated compliance markets and voluntary carbon markets.

    What are the implications of prioritising CCUS over agriculture?

    1. Industrial Competitiveness: Supports decarbonisation of sectors contributing ~25% of India’s emissions.
    2. Net-Zero Alignment: Essential for achieving India’s climate commitments.
    3. Missed Rural Opportunity: Delays monetisation of agriculture’s carbon sequestration potential.
    4. Fiscal Prioritisation: Directs public funds toward capital-intensive technologies instead of nature-based solutions.

    Can agriculture-based carbon markets emerge as a parallel opportunity?

    1. Soil Carbon Sequestration: Enhances carbon storage through regenerative practices.
    2. Agroforestry Potential: Integrates trees into farming systems to generate carbon credits.
    3. Private Sector Initiatives: Pilot programmes compensate farmers for sustainable practices.
    4. Policy Requirement: Needs separate funding, institutional frameworks, and certification mechanisms.

    What policy approach is required to resolve the ambiguity?

    1. Clear Sectoral Demarcation: Separates ‘smokestack’ (industrial) and ‘soil’ (agriculture) carbon pathways.
    2. Dedicated Agricultural Policy: Establishes structured carbon farming programme with incentives.
    3. Market Development: Creates trusted domestic carbon market for agriculture credits.
    4. Communication Clarity: Ensures alignment between policy design and public narrative.

    Conclusion

    India’s carbon credit framework reflects a dual transition challenge: industrial decarbonisation through CCUS and agricultural transformation through carbon sequestration. Policy clarity, sector-specific instruments, and institutional coherence are essential to avoid misaligned expectations and unlock full climate and economic potential.

  • Wild Buffalo Translocation: Kaziranga to Kanha Initiative

    Why in the News

    Authorities have planned to translocate ~50 Asiatic wild water buffaloes from Kaziranga National Park to Kanha Tiger Reserve in a phased manner, starting with a smaller group.

    About the Species

    • Asiatic Wild Water Buffalo
      • Scientific name: Bubalus arnee
      • Status: Endangered (IUCN)
      • India holds major global population

    Key Details of the Plan

    • Total planned: ~50 buffaloes
    • Initial phase: 5–15 individuals
    • Method:
      • Tranquilization and capture
      • Gradual relocation after feasibility checks

    Why Translocation is Being Done?

    • Species Conservation: Avoids over-concentration in one area
      • Reduces risk from: Disease outbreaks and Natural disasters.
    • Kanha Tiger Reserve historically had wild buffaloes
      • Aim: restore lost populations
    • Genetic Diversity: Helps maintain: Healthy breeding populations and Reduced inbreeding.

    Why Kaziranga?

    • Hosts 1000+ wild buffaloes
    • One of the strongest populations globally
    • Suitable as a source population

    Why Kanha?

    • Suitable: Habitat (grasslands + water sources)
    • Part of central Indian landscape restoration
    [2017] According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which of the following animals cannot be hunted by any person except under some provisions provided by law? 
    1. Gharial Indian 
    2. Wild ass 
    3. Wild buffalo 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 
    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India Submits First National Report on Nagoya Protocol (ABS)

    Why in the News?

    India has submitted its First National Report (NR1) on the implementation of the Nagoya Protocol (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) on 27 February 2026, fulfilling obligations under Article 29.

    Key Highlights of the Report

    1. Reporting Period

    • Covers 1 November 2017 to 31 December 2025
    • Earlier Interim Report submitted in 2017

    2. Legal & Institutional Framework

    • Based on: Biological Diversity Act, 2002, Biological Diversity Rules, 2024 and ABS Regulations, 2025. 
    • Three-tier structure:
      • National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
      • State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) / UT Biodiversity Councils
      • Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)
    • 2,76,653 BMCs established → strong grassroots participation

    3. Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) Performance

    • Total approvals (2017–2025): 12,830
      • NBA: 5,913 approvals (research, IPR, commercial use, etc.)
      • SBBs/UTBCs: 6,917 approvals (commercial utilization)

    4. Global Leadership in Compliance

    • 3,556 IRCCs (Internationally Recognised Certificates of Compliance) published
    • Accounts for over 60% of global total
    • Shows leadership in transparency under Nagoya Protocol

    5. Financial Benefits Generated

    • ₹216.31 crore mobilised through NBA approvals
      • ₹139.69 crore disbursed to: Local communities, Farmers, and Traditional knowledge holders
    • ₹51.96 crore generated via SBBs/UTBCs

    6. Non-Monetary Benefits

    • 395 approvals included: Capacity building, Technology transfer, Training and Collaborative research. 

    7. Monitoring of Foreign Biological Resources

    • 41 declarations received for use of foreign bioresources
    • Ensures compliance with international ABS norms

    8. Capacity Building & Awareness

    • 2,56,393 individuals trained
    • Through: 3,724 workshops and 600+ capacity-building initiatives

    9. Strategic Contribution

    • Supports Target 13 of India’s NBSAP (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan)
    • Strengthens: Biodiversity conservation, Livelihood security, and Community participation
    [2025] Consider the following statements: 
    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realisation of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol. 
    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction. 
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • New Fish Species Discovered: Butis bargabhimae in West Bengal

    Why in the News

    Scientists have discovered a new estuarine fish species, named Butis bargabhimae, in the Rupnarayan River near Tamluk.

    About the Species

    1. Classification

    • Family: Butidae (gudgeon gobies)
    • Habitat: Brackish water (estuaries)
    • Found where rivers meet the sea

    2. Discovery Process

    • Time: 2022–2024
    • Institutions: Tamralipta Mahavidyalaya and Vidyasagar University.
    • Method:
      • Field collection by local fishermen
      • Morphological + DNA analysis

    Unique Features

    • Presence of interorbital scales (between eyes)
    • Additional auxiliary body scales
    • Distinct light and dark bands on pectoral fins
    • DNA similarity only ~86% with closest relatives
    • Confirms it as a new species

    Naming Significance

    • Named after Bargabhima, a local deity of Tamluk
    • Reflects link between biodiversity and cultural heritage

    Scientific Importance

    • Taxonomic Clarity: Helped correct misidentification of similar species in:
      • India
      • Bangladesh
    • Role of DNA Barcoding: Shows importance of genetic tools in species identification
    • Hidden Biodiversity: Suggests many undiscovered species in Indian rivers and estuaries
    [2022] DNA Barcoding can be a tool to: 
    1. Assess the age of a plant or animal. 
    2. Distinguish among species that look alike. 
    3. Identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods. 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 
    (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3

  • ‘Super El Niño’ Alert: Risk of Record Global Heat

    Why in the News

    Forecasters, including NOAA Climate Prediction Center, warn of a possible El Niño in 2026, with chances it could intensify into a “super El Niño”, potentially pushing global temperatures to new highs.

    What is El Niño?

    • A warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
    • Occurs when Pacific Ocean surface waters become warmer than normal

    What is a “Super El Niño”?

    • When sea surface temperature rises ≥ 2°C above average
    • Much stronger than normal El Niño
    • Rare events: Last major one: 2015–16

    Current Situation

    • Present phase: La Niña (cool phase) is ending
    • Forecast: ~62% chance of El Niño by mid-2026 and ~15% chance of super El Niño

    How El Niño Works

    • Warm water shifts toward eastern Pacific
    • Weakens trade winds
    • Alters global weather systems
    [2011] La Niña is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Niña different from El Niño? 
    1. La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Niño is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. 
    2. El Niño has an adverse effect on the southwest monsoon of India, but La Niña has no effect on monsoon climate. 
    Select the correct answer: 
    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2