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Subject: Environment

  • [5th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: Climate risks must prompt international legal reforms

    PYQ Relevance
    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How will Himalayan and coastal states of India be affected by climate change?Linkage: This question relates directly to the article’s discussion on sea-level rise, climate displacement, and governance challenges. It highlights the global and regional impacts of climate change, which underpin debates on international legal frameworks and climate justice.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Rising sea levels and climate-induced migration are exposing major gaps in international law, particularly regarding statehood, refugee protection, and maritime boundaries. Vulnerable small island states and forums like the Pacific Islands Forum (2023) have raised concerns that existing frameworks such as the Montevideo Convention, UNCLOS, and the 1951 Refugee Convention do not adequately address climate-driven territorial loss and displacement, prompting calls for international legal reforms.

    What is Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources (PSNR)?

    1. Concept: Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources (PSNR) is a principle of international law that affirms the sovereign right of states and peoples to control, use, and exploit natural resources within their territory in accordance with national development priorities.
    2. Legal Origin: The principle was formally articulated in UN General Assembly Resolution 1803 (1962) on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, adopted during the decolonisation period.
    3. Core Objective: Ensures that newly independent and developing countries retain control over their natural resources, preventing external exploitation by foreign powers or multinational corporations.
    4. Developmental Dimension: Recognises that control over resources such as minerals, fossil fuels, forests, and water is essential for economic growth, industrialisation, and poverty reduction.
    5. State Authority: Grants governments the right to regulate extraction, nationalise resources, and determine terms of foreign investment in the resource sector.
    6. Climate Governance Tension: Global climate goals requiring phasing out fossil fuels create tensions with PSNR, as states traditionally retain the sovereign right to exploit hydrocarbons within their territory.
    7. Relevance to Climate Debate: The emerging idea of a Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty and discussions at COP28 and COP30 raise questions about whether global climate obligations can limit a state’s sovereign control over fossil resources.

    How does climate change challenge the principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources (PSNR)?

    1. Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources (PSNR): Developing countries rely on PSNR to extract fossil fuels above and below ground.
    2. Developmental Imperative: Enables developing states to pursue economic independence and development through resource exploitation.
    3. Climate Mitigation Pressure: Global efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C require reducing fossil fuel extraction, creating tension with PSNR.
    4. Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Proposal: Suggests keeping large portions of fossil fuels unexploited to limit emissions.
    5. COP Negotiations: Discussions at COP28 (Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, Dubai 2023) and COP30 (Belém, Brazil 2025) indicate growing momentum toward phasing out fossil fuels, even outside formal negotiation agendas.
    6. Equity Debate: Developing countries may accept limited obligations only if developed nations provide finance and transfer carbon-neutral technologies.

    How does sea-level rise threaten the concept of statehood under international law?

    1. Montevideo Convention (1933): Defines statehood through four criteria, territory, permanent population, government, and capacity to enter relations with other states.
    2. Territorial Requirement: Statehood traditionally requires a defined territory.
    3. Sea Level Rise (SLR): Rising oceans threaten to submerge low-lying island states, raising questions about whether a state can continue to exist without territory.
    4. State Continuity Doctrine: Customary international law generally presumes that once established, statehood continues despite territorial loss.
    5. International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion: Suggests disappearance of one element of statehood does not automatically end statehood.
    6. Pacific Islands Forum (2023): Declared that international law does not yet address the extinction of states due to climate change.
    7. Legal Ambiguity: Scholars note that no minimum territorial threshold exists for statehood, leaving the issue unresolved.

    How does climate change create gaps in international refugee protection?

    1. 1951 Refugee Convention: Defines refugees as persons fleeing persecution based on race, religion, nationality, social group, or political opinion.
    2. Legal Gap: Climate-displaced persons do not fall within this definition.
    3. Climate Migration: Sea-level rise and environmental degradation are expected to cause large-scale cross-border displacement.
    4. Loss of Rights: Climate migrants may lose protections and benefits linked to citizenship in their home country.
    5. Proposal for New Protocol: Suggests creating a separate legal regime under the UNFCCC to recognise and protect climate refugees.
    6. Institutional Support: A protocol under the UNFCCC could build on political commitments from the Paris Agreement and COP negotiations.

    How could sea-level rise unsettle maritime zones and ocean governance?

    1. Baseline Concept: The baseline represents the legal starting point for measuring maritime zones under international law.
    2. UNCLOS Maritime Zones: Baselines determine territorial sea, contiguous zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and continental shelf.
    3. Shifting Coastlines: Rising sea levels may alter baselines, potentially changing maritime boundaries.
    4. Strategic Implications: Changes in baselines may affect control over marine resources, fisheries, and seabed minerals.
    5. Pacific Island States Initiative: Some states propose declaring existing baselines as permanent to prevent loss of maritime zones.
    6. Ambulatory Baseline Approach: UNCLOS traditionally allows baselines to shift with coastline changes.
    7. Interpretation Challenge: Accepting either approach would require reinterpretation or amendment of UNCLOS provisions.

    Why must international legal frameworks adapt to climate risks?

    1. Institutional Gap: Existing international law was designed without anticipating climate-induced territorial and demographic disruptions.
    2. Systemic Risk: Climate change now affects statehood, migration, sovereignty, and maritime governance simultaneously.
    3. UNFCCC Platform: Provides a global forum through Conference of Parties (COP) to discuss legal adaptation.
    4. Equitable Governance: Legal reforms must incorporate equity, responsibility sharing, and technological support.
    5. Global Stability: Updating legal frameworks ensures predictability and protection for vulnerable states and populations.

    Conclusion

    Climate change is increasingly exposing structural gaps in international law related to statehood, sovereignty, migration, and maritime governance. Addressing these challenges requires adaptive legal frameworks, equitable climate cooperation, and stronger multilateral coordination to protect vulnerable states and ensure stability in the evolving global order.

  • Why carbon capture is key to achieving net-zero goal

    Why in the News?

    The Union Budget has, for the first time, made a large, dedicated fiscal commitment of ₹20,000 crore to carbon capture, utilisation and storage. This marks a shift from pilot-driven experimentation to scale-oriented deployment. The urgency is underscored by global data showing 1 billion tonnes of annual CO₂ capture required by 2030, while only 50 million tonnes are currently captured worldwide. India’s net-zero pathway increasingly depends on CCUS as emissions from cement, steel and chemicals cannot be eliminated through renewable energy substitution alone.

    What is Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage?

    1. It refers to technologies that capture CO₂ from industrial processes, transport it, and either store it in geological formations or convert it into useful products.
    2. Process Stages: CCUS involves capturing carbon dioxide (via post-combustion, pre-combustion, or oxy-fuel combustion), transporting it, and either using it for industrial applications or storing it permanently
    3. Role in Climate Change: It is essential for decarbonizing “hard-to-abate” sectors, including steel, cement, and chemical production, which account for significant global emissions.
    4. Carbon Removal: CCUS enables negative emissions through technologies like Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture (DACCS).
    5. Challenges: High capital costs, energy intensity (high auxiliary power consumption), safety concerns, and infrastructure needs for transport are major bottlenecks.

    What Does Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Involve?

    1. Carbon Capture: Enables separation of CO₂ from industrial exhaust streams in cement, steel, power and refining operations.
    2. Carbon Storage: Facilitates long-term containment of CO₂ in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
    3. Carbon Utilisation: Supports conversion of captured CO₂ into chemicals and industrial inputs, reducing fresh fossil use.

    Why Is CCUS Critical for Achieving Net-Zero?

    1. Hard-to-Abate Emissions: Addresses emissions that arise from chemical reactions in cement and steel, not from fuel combustion.
    2. Limits of Renewables: Recognises that shifting to renewable electricity does not eliminate process emissions in heavy industry.
    3. Climate Mitigation: Enables deep emissions reduction without compromising industrial output and economic growth.

    What Is the Current Global Status of Carbon Capture?

    1. Operational Capacity: Includes 45 commercial CCUS facilities worldwide.
    2. Captured Volume: Accounts for only 50 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, far below climate targets.
    3. 2030 Requirement: Indicates a need for 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ capture per year by 2030 to align with net-zero pathways.
    4. Deployment Gap: Highlights a sharp mismatch between climate targets and present technological scale.

    What Is the Status of CCUS Technologies in India?

    1. Pilot Projects: Includes initiatives by Tata Steel, Dalmia Cement, NTPC, ONGC, focusing on capture feasibility.
    2. Research Ecosystem: Involves dozens of research groups working on capture materials and processes.
    3. Institutional Leadership: Anchored by Centres of Excellence at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay and Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, focusing on indigenous CCUS solutions.
    4. Readiness Gap: Indicates laboratory-level maturity but limited field-scale testing.

    How Does the Union Budget Change the CCUS Landscape?

    1. Fiscal Allocation: Provides ₹20,000 crore for CCUS technology development and deployment.
    2. Scale Transition: Signals movement from pilot projects to industrial demonstration.
    3. Cost Reduction: Aims to address high capital and operational costs that restrict commercial viability.
    4. Industrial Adoption: Targets steel, cement, refineries and chemicals as early adopters.

    Why Are Certain Industries Central to CCUS Deployment?

    1. Cement Sector: Generates CO₂ as an inherent by-product of limestone calcination.
    2. Steel Sector: Emits carbon through coke-based reduction processes.
    3. Chemical and Refining Industries: Produce process emissions independent of energy source.
    4. Competitiveness: Aligns emission reduction with global trade requirements, including carbon border measures.

    What Are the Economic and Strategic Benefits of CCUS?

    1. Industrial Continuity: Enables emission reduction without relocating or shutting down core industries.
    2. Global Competitiveness: Reduces exposure to mechanisms such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.
    3. Technology Leadership: Positions India as a developer, not just adopter, of CCUS technologies.
    4. Cost Containment: Prevents loss of competitiveness from carbon-intensive exports.

    Conclusion

    CCUS is not a substitute for renewable energy but a necessary complement for India’s net-zero strategy. The Budget’s ₹20,000 crore allocation marks a decisive shift from experimentation to scale. However, success depends on rapid field deployment, cost reduction, and industry integration to ensure CCUS delivers measurable emissions reduction by 2030.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change? 

    Linkage: This question is directly linked to GS III (Environment, Climate Change, Clean Technologies), reflecting UPSC’s focus on technological pathways for achieving net-zero and decarbonising hard-to-abate industries.

  • What are carbon capture and utilization technologies?

    Why in the News?

    Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) has gained attention as India advances its Draft 2030 CCUS Roadmap and aligns industrial policy with its Net Zero 2070 commitment. With India remaining the world’s third-largest CO₂ emitter and emissions concentrated in hard-to-abate sectors like cement and steel, CCU is being positioned as a key strategy to decarbonise industry while sustaining economic growth.

    What is Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) and how does it function within the carbon cycle?

    1. Definition: Captures carbon dioxide (CO₂) from industrial flue gases or ambient air and converts it into usable products.
    2. Source of Capture: Extracts carbon dioxide from cement plants, steel units, power plants, chemical industries, or through Direct Air Capture (DAC).
    3. Conversion Pathways: Transforms carbon dioxide into fuels (methanol, synthetic fuels), chemicals (olefins), building materials (concrete curing), and polymers.
    4. Difference from CCS: Utilises carbon for economic value instead of permanent geological storage.
    5. Circular Carbon Economy: Recycles carbon within production systems, reducing fresh fossil extraction.

    Why has Carbon Capture and Utilisation become a governance priority in India’s decarbonisation strategy?

    1. Emission Profile: India ranks as the third-largest CO₂ emitter, with emissions concentrated in power generation, cement, steel, and chemicals.
    2. Hard-to-Abate Sectors: Industrial processes remain inherently carbon-intensive despite renewable penetration.
    3. Net-Zero Alignment: Supports India’s Net Zero 2070 target and Long-Term Low Emissions Development Strategy (LT-LEDS).
    4. Circular Economy Transition: Converts waste carbon into economic inputs, strengthening resource efficiency.
    5. Industrial Competitiveness: Enables low-carbon industrial exports amid global carbon border adjustment measures.

    How does CCU reshape industrial policy and value chains in India?

    1. Carbon as Feedstock: Converts CO₂ into fuels, chemicals, lightweight concrete blocks, olefins, and specialty chemicals.
    2. Value Chain Creation: Integrates capture, transport, conversion, and downstream manufacturing clusters.
    3. Bio-CCU Innovation: Organic Recycling Systems Limited (ORSL) leads India’s first pilot-scale Bio-CCU platform converting CO₂ from biogas into bio-alcohols.
    4. Cement Sector Adoption: JK Cement collaborates on CCU to capture CO₂ for concrete applications.
    5. Private Sector Participation: Ambuja Cements and Adani Group pilot Indo-Swedish CCU technologies at IIT Bombay.

    What institutional and regulatory measures has India initiated to support CCU deployment?

    1. Research Roadmap: Department of Science and Technology develops dedicated CCU research and development framework.
    2. Draft 2030 CCUS Roadmap: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas identifies projects suitable for CCU deployment.
    3. Pilot Demonstration Projects: Facilitates early-stage technology validation across cement and energy sectors.
    4. Cluster-Based Approach: Recognizes need for co-located industrial clusters for CO₂ transport and utilisation.
    5. Policy Gap: Lacks carbon pricing, standards, certification mechanisms, and demand guarantees for CO₂-derived products.

    How do international policy models shape India’s CCU strategy?

    1. EU Bioeconomy Strategy: Integrates CCU into a circular economy framework for fuels, chemicals, and materials.
    2. EU Circular Economy Action Plan: Links CCU to sustainability and resource efficiency goals.
    3. U.S. Incentive Model: Combines tax credits and funding to scale CO₂-derived fuels and chemicals.
    4. Industrial Trials: ArcelorMittal (Belgium) and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries collaborate with D-CRBN to convert CO₂ into carbon monoxide for steel and chemicals.
    5. UAE Model: Al Reyadah project integrates CCU with green hydrogen for CO₂-to-chemicals hubs.

    What governance and economic risks constrain large-scale CCU adoption in India?

    1. Cost Competitiveness: Capturing, purifying, and converting CO₂ remains energy-intensive and expensive.
    2. Market Viability: CO₂-derived products struggle against cheaper fossil-based alternatives.
    3. Infrastructure Deficit: Requires reliable CO₂ transport networks and integrated industrial clusters.
    4. Regulatory Uncertainty: Absence of standards and certification creates investor hesitation.
    5. Demand-Side Weakness: Limited market signals reduce private capital mobilisation.

    Does CCU advance constitutional environmental principles and climate accountability?

    1. Article 48A: Strengthens State responsibility to protect and improve the environment.
    2. Article 51A(g): Encourages responsible environmental stewardship.
    3. Intergenerational Equity: Supports sustainable industrial growth without locking in emissions.
    4. Polluter Responsibility: Encourages industry-led carbon management mechanisms.

    Conclusion

    Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) bridges the gap between industrial growth and climate responsibility. It enables decarbonisation of hard-to-abate sectors while supporting circular economy and energy security objectives. However, large-scale deployment requires cost competitiveness, regulatory clarity, infrastructure development, and market incentives. Its effectiveness will depend on coordinated policy action, technological scaling, and institutional accountability aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 pathway.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) directly fits under Kyoto Protocol-based mitigation mechanisms aimed at reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions. It represents a technology-driven control measure to decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors while aligning with global climate commitments.

  • Land Use Change Reshaping Spider Communities in the Himalayas

    Why in the News

    A new study published in Insect Conservation and Diversity by researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India finds that land use change and elevation are significantly reshaping spider communities in the north western Indian Himalayas, potentially reducing ecosystem resilience.

    What Did the Study Examine?

    • Surveyed spiders along an elevational gradient of 1,500 to 4,500 metres in Himachal Pradesh.
    • Compared three land use types:
      • Forests
      • Agricultural lands
      • Human dominated regions
    • Recorded:
      • 2,936 individuals
      • 126 species
      • 65 genera
      • 26 families

    What is Functional Diversity?

      • Functional diversity refers to the ecological roles species perform, rather than just counting the number of species.
    • Examples of spider traits studied:
        • Circadian activity
        • Hunting strata
        • Ballooning ability
        • Hunting guild
        • Prey range
    • Higher functional diversity means:
      • Greater ecological stability
      • Better pest control
      • More resilience against disturbances

    Key Findings

    • Decline with Elevation: Species richness and functional redundancy decrease with altitude, with a critical threshold around 3,000 to 3,500 metres near the Himalayan treeline, increasing ecosystem vulnerability.
    • Agricultural Homogenisation: Functional diversity remains stable across elevations in agricultural areas, indicating trait homogenisation due to intensification, with dominance of ground dwelling spiders like Lycosidae.
    • Forest Elevational Gradients: Forest ecosystems show clear trait shifts with altitude, with communities largely dominated by cathemeral species.
    • Human Dominated Landscapes: Greater trait richness at lower elevations supports the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, with presence of synanthropic species adapted to human environments.

    Ecological Importance of Spiders

    • Among the most voracious arthropod predators.
    • Consume over 600 million tonnes of insects annually.
    • Help regulate pest populations and disease vectors.
    • Act as bioindicators of habitat disturbance.
    [2011] The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this phenomenon? (a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth. 

    (b) It is a confluence of different biogeographical zones. 

    (c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region. 

    (d) It has less human interference.

  • India Among Four Nations Driving Global Pesticide Toxicity

    Why in the News

    A new study published in Science finds that India is among four countries contributing nearly 70 percent of the world’s Total Applied Toxicity (TAT) from agricultural pesticides. Experts have also raised concerns that the proposed Pesticides Management Bill 2025 may weaken safeguards compared to the older law.

    What is Total Applied Toxicity (TAT)?

    • TAT measures not just the quantity of pesticides used, but their toxicity and lethality to non target species.
    • Researchers analysed over 600 pesticides across 65 countries from 2013 to 2019.
    • Global TAT has increased, especially for around 20 commonly used agricultural pesticides.

    Countries Driving Global TAT

    • Four major contributors: China, Brazil, United States, and India
    • Together, they account for nearly 70 percent of global pesticide toxicity.
    • Only Chile is currently on track to meet the UN target of reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030.

    Impact on Biodiversity

    Species most affected:

    1. Terrestrial arthropods
    2. Soil organisms
    3. Fish
    4. Pollinators
    5. Aquatic plants
    6. Terrestrial vertebrates

    Regions with high increases include sub Saharan Africa and parts of the Indian subcontinent.

    Link to Global Commitments

    • At the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, countries committed to reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030. The findings indicate that global progress is not on track.

    Indian Legal Framework

    1. Insecticides Act 1968

    • Focused mainly on agricultural use
    • Limited regulation of domestic and non agricultural applications
    • Considered outdated
    • India reportedly uses several pesticides that are banned in parts of Europe, such as paraquat.

    2. Pesticides Management Bill 2025

    • Proposed to replace the 1968 Act
    • Aims to reduce risk to people and environment
    • Encourages biological and traditional knowledge based alternatives
    • Experts warn that without stronger liability and monitoring provisions, it may not significantly improve regulation
    [2019] In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as: 

    (a) pesticides in agriculture 

    (b) preservatives in processed foods 

    (c) fruit-ripening agents 

    (d) moisturising agents in cosmetics

  • Why Does Wildfire Smoke Swirl Only One Way?

    Why in the News

    Two recent studies published in Weather and Climate Dynamics and presented at the American Meteorological Society meeting explain why wildfire smoke in the stratosphere forms spinning bubbles that rotate in only one direction depending on the hemisphere.

    What Is Observed?

    • After intense wildfires, smoke can rise high into the stratosphere. Instead of dispersing immediately, it sometimes forms a compact spinning bubble called a smoke vortex.
      • Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
      • Counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

    Why Does It Rotate Only One Way?

    • Smoke Heats the Surrounding Air: Smoke particles absorb sunlight. This warms the air around them. Warm air becomes buoyant and rises. This upward movement creates a vertical column of heated air.
    • Earth’s Rotation Effect: Because Earth rotates, moving air experiences a deflection known as the Coriolis effect. 
      • In the Northern Hemisphere, air is deflected to the right. In the Southern Hemisphere, air is deflected to the left. As the heated smoke rises, Earth’s rotation causes it to spin in a preferred direction.

    Why the Bubble Persists

    • The rotating vortex traps warm smoke near its centre. Reduces mixing with surrounding air.
    • Helps the bubble rise higher into the stratosphere. This mechanism is similar to how cyclones maintain structure, but on a smaller and smoke driven scale.
    [2024] With reference to “Coriolis force,” which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. It increases with increase in wind velocity. 

    2. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator. 

    Select the answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only  (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Padayappa the wild tusker in Munnar

    Why in the News?

    A wild tusker named Padayappa has recently damaged vehicles along the Munnar to Marayur route in Kerala during his musth period, reviving debate over human wildlife conflict and relocation demands.

    Location

    • Munnar, Idukki district, Kerala
    • Roams between Munnar and Devikulam forest ranges

    About Padayappa

    • Approximate age: 60 years
    • Species: Asian Elephant
    • Identifiable by:
      • Limp due to hind leg injury
      • Unusually long tusks
    • Named after the Rajinikanth film Padayappa
    • Known as a tourism icon in Munnar

    Recent Developments

    • Damaged four vehicles this month
    • Over 20 vehicles damaged during last year’s musth period
    • Forest Department Rapid Response Team monitoring movements
    • Officials state aggression linked only to musth, not habitual conflict behavior

    Musth (Prelims Concept)

    • A periodic condition in male elephants
    • Characterised by:
      • Increased testosterone levels
      • Heightened aggression
      • Temporal gland secretion
    • Seasonal and temporary phase
    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements: 1. The leader of an elephant group is a female. 

    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months. 

    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only. 

    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • Nicobar project’s strategic and ecological consequences

    Why in the News?

    The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has raised concerns over environmental safeguards in the ₹81,000-crore Great Nicobar mega project. The project has drawn attention due to large-scale forest diversion and its strategic significance as a proposed economic and defence hub.

    What is the Great Nicobar Island Development Project?

    1. Mega Infrastructure Project: Envisions integrated development of Great Nicobar Island as a strategic economic and defence hub at India’s southernmost tip.
    2. Project Cost: Estimated investment of about ₹81,000 crore aimed at long-term maritime and regional development.
    3. Core Components: Includes a transshipment port at Galathea Bay, a dual-use international airport, a greenfield township, and power infrastructure.
    4. Strategic Objective: Strengthens India’s maritime presence near major Indo-Pacific shipping routes and supports blue economy goals.
    5. Scale of Development: Covers nearly 166 sq km area involving land reclamation and major infrastructure expansion.
    6. Institutional Framework: Implemented through island development planning with environmental clearances subject to regulatory review.

    How does the Great Nicobar project reshape India’s strategic and maritime governance priorities?

    1. Strategic Location: Strengthens India’s maritime presence near the Malacca Strait, a key global shipping lane; positions India in Indo-Pacific logistics competition.
    2. Transshipment Capacity: Facilitates cargo transfer from large to smaller vessels; reduces dependence on foreign ports such as Singapore and Colombo.
    3. Defence Integration: Supports dual-use infrastructure with a military-civilian airport near INS Baaz, ensuring enhanced regional surveillance capability.
    4. Economic Hub Objective: Promotes integrated development through shipping, logistics and energy infrastructure to strengthen blue economy outcomes.
    5. Example: Proposed transshipment port at Galathea Bay designed for large-scale maritime trade handling.

    What governance challenges arise from large-scale development in ecologically fragile island ecosystems?

    1. Forest Diversion: Involves diversion of approximately 130 sq km of forest land from a 910 sq km island ecosystem.
    2. Deforestation Scale: Requires felling of nearly one million trees, raising compliance concerns under environmental clearance norms.
    3. Land Reclamation: Includes reclamation of around 166 sq km project area for infrastructure expansion.
    4. Institutional Oversight: Raises questions on adequacy of environmental impact assessments and monitoring frameworks.
    5. Example: Expansion activities around Galathea Bay intersect with ecologically sensitive zones.

    How does the project test environmental regulatory institutions and accountability mechanisms?

    1. Regulatory Scrutiny: NGT intervention strengthens judicial review of environmental decision-making processes.
    2. Clearance Process: Examines whether cumulative ecological impacts were fully assessed before approval.
    3. Precautionary Principle: Tests application of environmental jurisprudence balancing development and ecological risk.
    4. Administrative Accountability: Requires periodic compliance reporting and transparent monitoring frameworks.
    5. Example: NGT observations questioning safeguards indicate institutional check on executive decisions.

    What are the ecological and biodiversity implications of the proposed development?

    1. Biodiversity Loss: Threatens habitat of endemic species including Nicobar megapode and other island fauna.
    2. Protected Areas Impact: Project proximity to biosphere reserve and national parks intensifies conservation concerns.
    3. Ecosystem Fragility: Mixed evergreen forests and coastal ecosystems face fragmentation risk.
    4. Marine Ecology: Port development affects nesting sites and coastal biodiversity patterns.
    5. Example: Galathea Bay identified as ecologically sensitive with species nesting grounds.

    How does the project raise questions about social justice and indigenous rights governance?

    1. Indigenous Communities: Potential implications for vulnerable tribal groups residing in island regions.
    2. Livelihood Disruption: Infrastructure expansion may alter traditional ecological dependence and local settlements.
    3. Consultative Governance: Tests adequacy of consent and participatory decision-making mechanisms.
    4. Development vs Rights: Balances national strategic goals with constitutional protections for tribal communities.
    5. Example: Concerns raised regarding impacts on indigenous settlements in project vicinity.

    What economic and infrastructure outcomes are expected, and what risks remain?

    1. Infrastructure Integration: Ensures integrated development through airport, port, township and power plant.
    2. Logistics Efficiency: Promotes India’s emergence as a regional shipping hub.
    3. Investment Scale: ₹81,000 crore investment indicates long-term economic planning.
    4. Implementation Risk: High ecological and regulatory costs may delay or reshape execution timelines.
    5. Example: Planned airport area approximately 8.45 sq km and transshipment port around 7.66 sq km.

    Conclusion

    The Great Nicobar mega project represents a critical governance test where strategic economic ambitions intersect with ecological fragility and constitutional environmental commitments. Its long-term success will depend not merely on infrastructure delivery but on the credibility of regulatory safeguards, ecological accountability and inclusive decision-making mechanisms.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details.

    Linkage: This PYQ is directly relevant as the Great Nicobar Island Development Project has faced scrutiny over the adequacy of its Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and safeguards. It highlights how environmental activism, regulatory oversight, and institutional accountability influence approval and modification of large infrastructure projects.

  • Forest Rights Act Cells in Odisha under Central Scrutiny

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has begun inquiries after the Odisha government directed closure of several Forest Rights Act Cells and removal of staff involved in implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

    About the Forest Rights Act, 2006

    Objective

    • Recognises historical rights of:
      • Scheduled Tribes
      • Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
    • Over forest land used for habitat and livelihood.

    Types of Rights Recognised

    1. Individual Forest Rights
    2. Community Rights
    3. Community Forest Resource Rights

    Institutional Mechanism

    • Gram Sabha is the initiating authority.
    • Sub Divisional Level Committee
    • District Level Committee as final authority

    What are FRA Cells?

    • FRA Cells were created to:
      • Provide technical and clerical support
      • Maintain records
      • Digitise forest rights titles
      • Expedite processing of claims

    They were supported under:

    • DA JGUA Scheme

      • Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan
      • Launched in 2024
      • Central scheme
      • Provides additional human resources to strengthen FRA implementation

    • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana (Odisha State Scheme)

      • Mo Jungle Jami Yojana
      • State initiative to support FRA implementation

    Current Issue

    • Closure of 50 sub divisional FRA Cells.
    • Direction to clear all pending claims by March end.
    • Earlier discontinuation of district and tehsil level FRA staff.
    • Nearly 20 percent of FRA claims pending in the State.
    • Odisha has:
      • Second highest number of titles issued after Chhattisgarh.
      • Sixth highest pendency rate.
    [2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006? 

    (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 

    (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj 

    (c) Ministry of Rural Development 

    (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs

  • Japan’s Lake Suwa and the Disappearing “God’s Crossing”

    Why in the News?

    The traditional ice ridge phenomenon called “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari) on Lake Suwa in Japan has failed to appear for the seventh consecutive year, highlighting long term warming trends linked to climate change.

    Where is Lake Suwa?

    • Located in Nagano Prefecture, Japan
    • Associated with the Shinto shrine Yatsurugi Shrine
    • One of Japan’s most well documented climatic sites

    What is “God’s Crossing” (Miwatari)?

    • Traditional Belief
      • A raised ice ridge on the frozen lake surface.
      • Believed to mark the path of a deity crossing the lake.
    • Scientific Explanation
      • Occurs when: Lake surface freezes completely and Temperatures remain below minus 10°C for several days.
      • Ice expands and contracts due to temperature variation.
      • Cracks form, refreeze, and push shards upward forming a ridge.

    Climate Record Significance

    • Continuous records date back to 1443.
    • Shrine priests began systematic documentation from 1683.
    • Includes:
      • Date of full lake freeze
      • Appearance of miwatari
      • Ice thickness
      • Temperature readings

    Note: This makes Lake Suwa one of the longest continuous local climate records in the world.

    Climate Change Indicator

    • Phenomenon appeared almost every winter until the 1980s.
    • Increasing winter temperatures have reduced full lake freezing.
    • No appearance since 2018.
    • Shows impact of rising minimum temperatures.
    [2022] Which one of the following lakes of West Africa has become dry and turned into a desert? (a) Lake Victoria 

    (b) Lake Faguibine 

    (c) Lake Oguta 

    (d) Lake Volta