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Subject: Environment

  • [25th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Follow the rains, not the calendar to fight floods

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2016] The frequency of urban floods due to high-intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.

    Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to the article as both focus on increasing urban floods due to high-intensity, untimely rainfall and the need for better preparedness. It is important for UPSC as it tests understanding of climate change impacts, urban governance, and disaster management, all of which the article highlights through outdated drainage design, rainfall compression, and the need to “follow the rains, not the calendar.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Urban floods are no longer seasonal accidents; they are recurring crises that expose the mismatch between traditional planning calendars and the realities of a changing climate. This article unpacks the failures of outdated urban flood management and suggests a roadmap for building resilient cities. Aspirants must note its direct relevance to GS 1 (urbanisation), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (disaster management, environment), and GS 4 (ethics in governance).

    Introduction

    Every monsoon, India’s cities brace for floods with desilting of drains, deploying contractors, and activating emergency protocols. Yet, reality unfolds differently, roads submerge, homes flood, and transport grinds to a halt. The core problem lies not only in the intensity and unpredictability of rainfall but also in city systems designed for a climate that no longer exists. Urban resilience now demands shifting from “seasonal schedules” to real-time rainfall preparedness.

    Why in the News?

    This year, northern states like Punjab (all 23 districts), Delhi, and Gurugram witnessed severe floods in September, well beyond the traditional monsoon period. Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh saw frequent cloudbursts, while Kolkata faced torrential rains. Such untimely, intense, and regionally widespread flooding marks a sharp departure from past rainfall behaviour. With single floods now causing damages worth ₹8,700 crore, the urgency to rethink urban flood management cannot be overstated.

    Understanding Changing Rainfall Patterns

    1. Shift in Timing: Mumbai recorded 135.4 mm rainfall in May (normally a pre-monsoon month), followed by 161.9 mm the next day. Delhi saw 81 mm fall in a few hours, overwhelming drains.
    2. Rise in Frequency: CEEW analysis shows 64% of tehsils across states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka have seen heavy rainfall days increase by 1–15 days.
    3. Compression of Rainfall: Rainfall that earlier spanned a day is now compressed into hours, intensifying floods.

    Why are Indian Cities Flooding so Frequently?

    1. Outdated Drainage Design: Systems still rely on seasonal averages rather than short-duration, high-intensity rain data.
    2. Unmanaged Waste: Plastic and debris block drains; even after desilting, poor waste collection leads to quick clogging.
    3. Poor Coordination: Storm water, sanitation, and municipal waste departments work in silos, creating gaps in preparedness.
    4. Static Planning: Drainage infrastructure often relies on rainfall data decades old, ignoring evolving IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curves.

    What Solutions are Proposed?

    1. Sub-daily Rainfall Analysis: Municipalities must adopt rainfall data in smaller time frames (1–3 hours) to plan drainage.
    2. Drainage-Waste Synchronisation: Waste collection and drain cleaning must be coordinated; rainfall alerts should trigger joint drives.
    3. Updating IDF Curves: Curves must be revised every 5–10 years; new drainage should factor in topography and micro-catchments.
    4. Infrastructure Upgradation: Example – BMC’s plan to widen drains to handle 120 mm/hour rainfall and prepare a new drainage master plan.
    5. Separate Sewerage and Stormwater Networks: To prevent overload and improve efficiency.

    Broader Implications for Urban Planning

    1. Disaster Management: Floods are now the leading cause of life and property loss among natural disasters in India.
    2. Economic Impact: Each major flood inflicts damages of nearly ₹8,700 crore.
    3. Climate Resilience: Cities must adapt to “rain already falling” instead of waiting for calendar-based monsoon onset.

    Conclusion

    India is not losing to rain, but to outdated assumptions about rain. The fight against urban floods requires breaking the illusion of a uniform monsoon season. By following the rain, not the calendar, cities can design adaptive infrastructure, improve inter-departmental coordination, and protect citizens’ lives and livelihoods.

    Value Addition

    Case Study: Vijayawada’s Monsoon Response Teams

    • Integrated approach: The city administration created special monsoon response teams that brought together officials from the sanitation, engineering, and planning departments to work in coordination during high-risk rainy periods.
    • Real-time action: Instead of relying on rigid seasonal schedules, these teams responded dynamically to rainfall alerts and forecasts, immediately conducting joint sanitation drives and drain inspections.
    • Drainage & waste sync: Garbage clearance and storm water drain cleaning were aligned, preventing freshly desilted drains from being blocked again by unmanaged waste.
    • Impact: This reduced waterlogging and urban flooding, improved road accessibility, and lessened health risks for residents during monsoons.
    • Learning: Vijayawada shows how inter-departmental coordination, proactive planning, and rainfall-triggered response systems can make cities more resilient to changing monsoon patterns.

    Global Context in Urban Flood Management

    Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Room for the River” approach

    • Idea: Instead of resisting water, the city creates water plazas that double as playgrounds during dry weather and hold excess rainwater during storms.
    • Infrastructure: Underground reservoirs, widened canals, and lowered floodplains to absorb water.
    • Learning: Shows the importance of adaptive urban design that accommodates rainfall variability.

    Copenhagen, Denmark – Cloudburst Management Plan

    • Trigger: After a massive cloudburst in 2011 caused $1 billion in damages.
    • Action: Developed over 300 projects including green roofs, permeable pavements, detention basins, and blue-green corridors that store and channel stormwater.
    • Learning: Proactive planning with a mix of nature-based and engineered solutions.

    New York City, USA – Green Infrastructure Plan

    • Focus: Reduce stormwater runoff that overwhelms combined sewer systems.
    • Measures: Rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs, permeable streets to capture rainfall locally.
    • Learning: Urban flooding is not just a drainage issue but requires land-use and design-based solutions.

    Singapore – ABC Waters Programme (Active, Beautiful, Clean)

    • Approach: Transforms canals, rivers, and drains into multifunctional spaces.
    • Measures: Retention ponds, vegetated swales, rain gardens integrated with urban landscapes.
    • Learning: Integrates aesthetics, ecology, and flood management, showing flood resilience can coexist with urban beauty.

    Tokyo, Japan – Underground Flood Tunnels (G-Cans Project)

    • Infrastructure: World’s largest underground floodwater diversion facility with 6.5 km tunnels and giant silos to store stormwater.
    • Impact: Protects Tokyo’s dense urban areas from typhoon rains and river overflow.
    • Learning: Mega-engineering projects can be effective in high-density megacities with extreme rainfall.

     

  • Pollution in Indian Rivers: CPCB Report, 2023

    Why in the News?

    The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) released its latest assessment (2022–23) on the health of Indian rivers.

    About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): 

    • Overview: Statutory body set up in September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
    • Expanded mandate: Later entrusted with powers under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    • Umbrella role: Serves as the technical arm of the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC), implementing provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    • Principal Functions:

      1. Water pollution control: Promote cleanliness of streams and wells across states by preventing, controlling, and abating pollution; Oversee the National Water Quality Monitoring Program to collect, collate, and disseminate data.
      2. Air pollution control: Improve air quality and control emissions; Run the National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) to determine current status and trends. Regulate industrial pollution, provide baseline data for industrial siting and town planning.
      3. Data Management: Collects, collates, and disseminates technical and statistical data on air and water pollution.

    • Key Initiatives and Programs:

      • NAMP: Monitors air quality and pollution trends.
      • NAQI (National Air Quality Index): Offers real-time air quality data.
      • GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan): Measures graded interventions based on severity of pollution.
      • Clean Air Campaign: Awareness and enforcement measures for pollution reduction.

    CPCB Assessment of Pollution in Indian Rivers:

    Parameters & Definitions:

    • Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by microbes to break down organic matter.
      • Healthy river: BOD <3 mg/L.
      • Unfit for bathing: BOD >3 mg/L.
    • Polluted River Stretch (PRS): When two or more consecutive locations in a river exceed bathing criteria (BOD >3 mg/L).
    • Priority Classification (BOD levels):
      1. Priority 1: >30 mg/L → Most polluted, urgent remediation.
      2. Priority 2: 20–30 mg/L.
      3. Priority 3: 10–20 mg/L.
      4. Priority 4: 6–10 mg/L.
      5. Priority 5: 3–6 mg/L → least polluted category but still polluted.

    Key Findings of the Report: 

    • Unfit bathing locations: 807 (2023) vs 815 (2022), shows marginal dip.
    • Polluted River Stretches (PRS): 296 stretches/locations across 271 rivers in 2023 vs 311 stretches in 279 rivers in 2022.
    • State-wise PRS (2023):
      1. Maharashtra: 54 (highest).
      2. Kerala: 31.
      3. Madhya Pradesh: 18.
      4. Manipur: 18.
      5. Karnataka: 14.
    • Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2023): Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand (5 each).
    • Most polluted states by Priority 1 (2022): Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (6 each).
    [UPSC 2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:

    Options: (a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood

    (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems

    (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems *

    (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions

     

  • ‘Smog-eating’ photocatalytic coatings on roads to curb pollution

    Why in the News?

    Delhi government has announced a feasibility study to test photocatalytic coatings on roads, pavements, and public spaces to bring visible improvements in air quality.

    About Smog:

    • Overview: Combination of smoke and fog, forming smoky fog with soot, gases, and moisture.
    • Components: Includes soot particulates, sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O₃).

    • Types:

      1. Sulfurous Smog (London Smog) – Caused by burning coal and sulphur-bearing fuels; worsened by dampness and particulates.
      2. Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles Smog) – Produced when NOₓ and hydrocarbons react under sunlight, forming ozone; appears as a brownish haze with respiratory effects.

    • Pollutants:

      1. Primary pollutants: Directly emitted (NO₂, SO₂, hydrocarbons).
      2. Secondary pollutants:  Formed via reactions (ozone, acid rain).
    • Haze vs. Smog: Haze = dry particles reducing visibility; Smog = pollutants with condensation.
    • Effects: Respiratory distress, eye irritation, plant damage, reduced visibility, carcinogenic risk, worsened by inversion layers and low rainfall.

    What are “Smog-Eating” Coatings?

    • Technology: Photocatalytic coatings using titanium dioxide (TiO₂) on roads, pavements, and public surfaces.
    • Function: Under sunlight, TiO₂ breaks down pollutants like NO₂ and hydrocarbons into less harmful compounds.
    • Advantages: Low-cost, stable, compatible with traditional materials, effective in depollution and creating self-cleaning surfaces.

    Delhi Government Plan

    • Plan: If viable, Cabinet proposal for citywide rollout at busy corridors, markets, and public spaces.
    • Evaluation: Study to assess cost-effectiveness, safety, and sustainability while shortlisting suppliers.
    • Strategic Context: Part of a 24×7, year-round environmental action plan using technology-driven interventions.
    [UPSC 2013] Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among-

    (a) NO₂, O₃ and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the prescence of sunlight *

    (b) CO₂, O₂, and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight

    (c) CO, CO₂, and NO₂ at low temperature

    (d) high concentration of NO₂, O₃ and CO in the evening

     

  • A climate-health vision with lessons from India

    Introduction

    At the Global Conference on Climate and Health (July 2025, Brazil), 90 countries shaped the Belém Health Action Plan, which will guide the climate-health agenda at COP30 (Nov 2025). Ironically, India, despite having some of the most instructive welfare experiences linking climate and health, was not officially represented, a missed opportunity to emerge as a global exemplar.

    India’s non-health interventions like the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) offer rich lessons for operationalising an integrated climate-health framework. They reveal that intentional, intersectoral action can yield multiple dividends: improved nutrition, reduced pollution, restored ecosystems, and healthier communities.

    Why is this news significant?

    India’s absence at Belém stands out because for the first time a global platform is drafting a climate-health action plan. While India has often been viewed through the prism of its energy transition challenges, this moment presented a chance to highlight its homegrown welfare successes with global resonance. The paradox is striking: even without designing policies as “climate policies,” India has reaped climate-health co-benefits, unlike many countries still struggling to integrate the two. Yet, persistent failures like high LPG refill costs in PMUY and siloed governance highlight the scale of unfinished work.

    What is the Belém Health Action Plan (BHAP)?

    • The BHAP is a strategic framework being finalized ahead of COP30 (Nov 2025, Belém, Brazil) intended to integrate health into climate change adaptation.
    • It emphasizes health equity, climate justice, and social participation alongside strengthening health systems to be resilient in face of climate change.

    Key Features / Action Lines

    Some of its priority action lines include:

    • Surveillance & Monitoring:
      • Linking climate/environmental data with health surveillance, early warning systems (for heatwaves, epidemics, etc.).
      • Real-time data, local / community-level monitoring.
    • Evidence-Based Policy Strategy & Capacity Building:
      • Training health workforce, integrating mental health & psychosocial support measures.
      • Gender-responsive, inclusive policies, recognizing most vulnerable groups (women, Indigenous people, persons with disabilities).
    • Innovation & Production:
      • Resilient infrastructure and services (e.g. climate-adapted health facilities), sustainable supply chains.
      • Focus on blended financing and mobilizing investments to make health systems adaptive and equitable.
    • Cross-cutting priorities:
      • Health equity & climate justice: ensuring that adaptation efforts do not further marginalize vulnerable groups.
      • Leadership & governance: accountability, social participation from civil society, clear institutional roles.

    What lessons do India’s welfare programmes offer for climate-health synergy?

    1. PM POSHAN: Covers 11 crore children in 11 lakh schools, linking nutrition, agriculture, and education. Promotion of millets strengthens climate-resilient food systems.
    2. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Improved sanitation, public health, and environmental sustainability, while embedding dignity and cultural symbolism via Gandhi’s vision.
    3. MNREGA: Enhanced livelihood security while simultaneously restoring degraded ecosystems through water conservation and afforestation.
    4. PM Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Transition to clean cooking fuel cut household air pollution — a leading cause of respiratory illness — while reducing carbon emissions.

    How has leadership and community engagement shaped outcomes?

    1. Political leadership: Direct involvement of the Prime Minister gave Swachh Bharat and PMUY inter-ministerial traction and public legitimacy.
    2. Community engagement: PM POSHAN leveraged parent-teacher committees, Swachh Bharat invoked cultural pride in cleanliness, ensuring local ownership.
    3. Cultural anchoring: Climate action framed as health protection resonates more deeply than carbon metrics.

    What structural challenges persist in implementation?

    1. Administrative silos: Divergent sectoral mandates limit integrated outcomes.
    2. High refill costs in PMUY: Oil marketing interests often outweigh beneficiary affordability.
    3. Social barriers: Gender norms and cultural practices limit uptake of clean fuel and sanitation.
    4. Output vs. outcome gap: Programmes measure immediate coverage but not long-term health-climate impact.

    What framework does India’s experience suggest for climate-health governance?

    1. Strategic prioritisation: Frame climate action as immediate health security, not distant environmental risk.
    2. Procedural integration: Embed health impact assessments into energy, transport, and urban policies.
    3. Participatory implementation: Leverage ASHA workers, SHGs, Panchayats as health-climate advocates.

    Why is this vision critical for the future?

    1. High stakes: Delinking climate and health crises leads to fragmented solutions with escalating costs.
    2. Transformative potential: An intersectoral, whole-of-society approach could position India as a global leader in climate-health governance.
    3. Clear choice: Continue piecemeal efforts or pioneer a bold model aligning welfare with planetary health.

    Conclusion

    India’s welfare architecture has shown that policies designed for social welfare can unintentionally become climate-health interventions. The challenge now is to make this synergy intentional and institutionalised, with robust political framing, procedural integration, and community mobilisation. At a time when the world is drafting a global climate-health action plan, India’s absence from the table is a wake-up call: to convert scattered lessons into a coherent model of governance that others can emulate.

    Value Addition

    Key Concepts

    1. Climate-Health Nexus: Environmental policies often have unintended health impacts; health policies also influence climate outcomes.
    2. Co-Benefits Approach: One intervention (e.g., PMUY for clean cooking fuel) yields multiple dividends (better health, women’s empowerment, reduced emissions).
    3. Whole-of-Society Approach: Intersectoral coordination between ministries, communities, and local bodies ensures impact.
    4. Output vs Outcome Gap: Many Indian schemes achieve outputs (LPG connections, toilets built) but outcomes (sustained use, cleaner air, health equity) remain weak.

    Important Data / Reports

    1. WHO Report (2021): Air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths annually worldwide.
    2. Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change (2022): South Asia faces one of the highest global burdens of climate-related health risks.
    3. India’s National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2021): Despite welfare schemes, 35.5% of children under 5 are stunted and 32.1% are underweight, showing links between nutrition, climate resilience, and health.
    4. UNDP (2023): Every $1 invested in resilience and adaptation yields $4 in avoided losses.
    5. Global Conference on Climate & Health (Belém Plan, 2025): First global blueprint on climate-health integration.

    PYQ Linkage:

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

    Linkage: India’s welfare schemes like PM POSHAN, PMUY, Swachh Bharat and MNREGA demonstrate that non-health interventions can mitigate climate impacts while improving public health. The Himalayan and coastal states, most vulnerable to warming, floods, and sea-level rise, can benefit from such intersectoral, resilience-building models. Thus, India’s climate-health vision provides practical pathways to address both regional vulnerabilities and national climate commitments.

  • Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

    Why in the News?

    The sinking of the ELSA 3 ship off the Kerala coast in May led to a significant ecological disruption in the south-eastern Arabian Sea, a new study has confirmed.

    Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

    About the Pollution and Contaminants:

    • Oil Slick: Wreck of ELSA 3 released petroleum pollutants, initially forming a slick of about 2 square miles.
    • Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Compounds like naphthalene, fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene detected; toxic, carcinogenic, and bioaccumulative.
    • Naphthalene Marker: High levels confirmed continuous leakage from fuel tanks.
    • Trace Metals: Nickel, lead, copper, vanadium found in elevated levels in water and sediments, worsening toxicity.
    • Distribution: Oil spread shifted with sea turbulence—first mid-depth concentration, later visible on the surface.

    Ecological Impacts of the Oil Spill:

    • Plankton: Zooplankton showed pollutant accumulation, marking entry into the marine food chain.
    • Fish Eggs & Larvae: Collected in the southwest monsoon spawning season displayed decay and mortality, threatening commercial species recruitment.
    • Benthic Organisms: Sensitive species declined within days; only pollution-tolerant worms and bivalves survived, reflecting seabed stress.
    • Higher Fauna: Brown Noddy seabird (Anous stolidus) recorded with oil-soaked plumage, highlighting risks to birds and larger marine life.
    • Overall Effect: A multi-level disruption from plankton to fish stocks to seabirds.

    Microbial Response and Bioremediation:

    • Bacterial Diversity: Metagenomic studies found hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria near the wreck.
    • Key Strains: Neptunomonas acidivorans, Halomonas tabrizica, Acinetobacter baumannii detected.
    • Implications: Their presence reflects both severe contamination and natural bioremediation potential.
    • Outlook: Microbial action may reduce pollution gradually, but contamination in the Arabian Sea remains significant.
    [UPSC 2017] In the context of solving pollution problems what is/are the advantage/disadvantages of bioremediation technique?

    1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.

    2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.

    3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only, (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Ant Queens giving birth to different species

    Why in the News?

    A groundbreaking study published in Nature (2025) has revealed that Messor ibericus, a Mediterranean harvester ant species, can produce male offspring of a completely different species, Messor structor.

    Ant Queens giving birth to different species

    About the Specie Messor ibericus:

    • Overview: A Mediterranean harvester ant, widely distributed across Southern Europe, known for its grain-harvesting behaviour and large colonies.
    • Hybrid Workers: All workers are hybrids, carrying DNA from both Messor ibericus and Messor structor.
    • Cross-Species Male Production: About 10% of queen’s eggs develop into pure Messor structor males, even without nearby structor colonies.
    • Genetic Signature: These males retain Messor ibericus mitochondrial DNA, proving maternal origin.
    • Reproductive Strategy: As per the Nature study:
      • Ibericus sperm produces new queens.
      • Structor sperm produces hybrid workers and additional structor males.
    • Evolutionary Significance: First documented case of a species naturally producing offspring of another species, challenging classical species concepts.
    • Colony Advantage: By producing both hybrid workers and pure structor males, queens secure compatible mates for future generations, sustaining both lineages.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following shows a unique relationship with an insect that has coevolved with it and that is the only insect that can pollinate this tree?

    Options:

    (a) Fig* (b) Mahua (c) Sandalwood (d) Silk cotton

     

  • Topography, climate change: Behind heavy rains in Himalayas

    Introduction

    Extreme rainfall in Uttarakhand over the past week has triggered multiple landslides, swelling rivers and leading to the loss of at least 15 lives. While such events have always occurred in the Himalayan belt during the monsoon, the frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of these disasters have sharply increased in recent years. This phenomenon is closely linked to climate change, altered monsoon dynamics, and the fragile geology of the region.

    Why in the News?

    Uttarakhand and parts of Himachal Pradesh have witnessed back-to-back extreme rainfall events over the last month, leading to landslides, mudslides, flash floods, and large-scale disruption. The striking fact is not just the death toll, but the scale of surplus rainfall, 34% above normal in August and 67% above normal in early September. Such heavy rainfall, while common in coastal states like Kerala or Meghalaya, is catastrophic in the Himalayas where steep slopes, loose soil, and fragile ecosystems amplify the risks.

    Why is rainfall unusually high in Uttarakhand this season?

    1. Active monsoon systems: Consecutive low-pressure systems from the Bay of Bengal have travelled farther north than usual, dumping large amounts of rain in the Himalayan belt.
    2. Surplus rainfall data: Northwestern India received 34% surplus rainfall in August and over 67% surplus rainfall in early September.
    3. Record-breaking events: Udhampur (J&K) recorded 630 mm in 24 hours, equivalent to a year’s rainfall in Rajkot, Gujarat; Leh recorded 59 mm in 48 hours, highest since 1973.

    Why are hilly regions more vulnerable to disasters?

    1. Fragile geology: Extreme rainfall triggers landslides, mudslides, and flash floods as rainwater drags soil, rocks, and debris downhill.
    2. River choke-points: When streams are blocked, water gushes into settlements, destroying roads and bridges.
    3. Comparative impact: While 300 mm of rain in Goa or Kerala drains into the sea, the same amount in Uttarakhand leads to catastrophic slope failure.
    4. Recent examples: Landslides across Mandi, Kullu, Dharali, Tharali, and Jammu in the past two weeks illustrate cascading effects.

    How is climate change altering monsoon dynamics?

    1. Southward shift of western disturbances: Once dominant in winters, these systems are increasingly interacting with the summer monsoon, intensifying rainfall events in the Himalayas.
    2. Global warming: Rising temperatures are linked to changing wind patterns and higher atmospheric moisture.
    3. Arctic connection: Melting Arctic sea ice may be influencing jet streams, further complicating rainfall behaviour.
    4. Future risks: Longer dry spells interspersed with intense rainfall events are likely to define Himalayan monsoons.

    What does this mean for Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh?

    1. Human cost: Frequent deaths, loss of livelihoods, and displacement.
    2. Economic disruption: Road blockages, tourism losses, and damage to hydro projects.
    3. Policy challenge: Need for climate-resilient infrastructure, stricter land-use regulations, and predictive weather modelling.

    Conclusion

    The Uttarakhand landslides are a grim reminder that the Himalayas, often called the “third pole”, are at the frontline of climate change. Extreme rainfall patterns, when coupled with unregulated urbanization and fragile geology, amplify disaster risks. Building climate-resilient infrastructure, enhancing early warning systems, and ensuring ecological sensitivity in planning are essential for safeguarding lives and livelihoods in these vulnerable mountain states.

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

    Linkage: The Uttarakhand landslides highlight how Himalayan states are increasingly vulnerable to climate change–induced extreme rainfall, cloudbursts, and landslides due to fragile geology. Similarly, coastal states face rising sea levels, cyclones, and saline intrusion, threatening lives and livelihoods. Thus, climate change amplifies both mountain hazards and coastal vulnerabilities, making India’s geography uniquely exposed.

  • Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)

    Why in the News?

    Brazil, the host of COP30, has proposed the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) to finance the conservation of standing forests.

    What is Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)?

    • Nature: A global blended finance fund that pays Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) per hectare of forest conserved.
    • Adjustments: Deductions made for deforestation or degradation.
    • Equity Provision: At least 20% of payments reserved for Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs).
    • Monitoring: Payments tracked via satellite systems and managed by a TFFF Secretariat.
    • Relation to REDD+: Complements but does not replace REDD+; no carbon credits or project-based offsets.

    Financial Mechanism:

    • Core Instrument: Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) under a Multilateral Development Bank (likely World Bank).
    • Funding Sources:
      • Sponsors (20%): High-income countries and philanthropies, via concessional loans/grants.
      • Market Investors (80%): Institutional investors, sovereign wealth funds, university endowments.
    • Investment Strategy: Invests in liquid public bonds (US Treasuries), corporate bonds (Apple), green/blue bonds; excludes fossil fuels.
    • Returns & Payments: Earnings from investment funds result-based payments to TFCs, with 2% annual increase for inflation.

    Key Hurdles:

    • Financing Burden: Global South may indirectly finance its own conservation as TFIF invests in their markets with higher borrowing costs.
    • Credit Rating Dependence: Returns hinge on ratings by Fitch, S&P, Moody’s.
    • Geopolitical Risk: Reliance on World Bank (US dominance) may skew control.
    • IPLC Gap: Despite pledges, historically Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs) receive <1% of climate aid.
    • Forest Definitions: Disputes over canopy thresholds (20–30%) may disadvantage sparser forest nations.

    Back2Basics: REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus)

    • Launch: 2008 as a UN collaborative initiative (FAO, UNDP, UNEP); now >65 partner countries.
    • Framework: Under UNFCCC; incentivizes developing nations to cut emissions and improve forest carbon stocks.
    • ‘+’ Component: Adds conservation, sustainable management, and carbon stock enhancement.
    • Objectives: Financial incentives for verified actions in (1) reducing deforestation, (2) reducing degradation, (3) conservation, (4) sustainable management, (5) carbon enhancement.
    • Mechanism: Countries prepare national strategies, monitor/report, and get results-based payments for verified emission reductions.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

    (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*

    (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

    (c) The New Development Bank (NDB)

    (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

     

  • How serious is the global plastic pollution crisis?

    Introduction

    Plastic—once hailed as a symbol of modern convenience—has now become a global menace. Its non-biodegradable nature, rising consumption, and weak waste management systems have led to an unprecedented ecological and socio-economic challenge. This year’s World Environment Day theme, Ending Plastic Pollution, reflects the international recognition of the crisis. The issue cuts across dimensions of environment, economy, health, governance, and ethics, making it a critical topic for civil services preparation.

    Why is Plastic Pollution Making Headlines?

    Plastic consumption and waste generation are reaching historic highs. In 2024 alone, 500 million tonnes of plastic were produced, generating 400 million tonnes of waste. The OECD projects that if current trends persist, plastic waste could almost triple to 1.2 billion tonnes by 2060. Such data marks a tipping point in human-environment relations. For the first time, experts warn that by mid-century there may be more plastic in the ocean than fish, a striking reversal of natural balance.

    How Severe is the Plastic Pollution Crisis?

    1. Rising consumption: Plastics production doubled between 2000 and 2019, reaching 460 million tonnes.
    2. Waste surge: Global plastic waste touched 353 million tonnes in 2019, with packaging alone contributing 40%.
    3. Recycling failure: Only 9% of waste is recycled; 50% ends up in landfills, and 22% escapes into open environments.
    4. Oceanic threat: About 11 million tonnes enter oceans annually, adding to the estimated 200 million tonnes already present.
    5. Climate connection: Plastics contribute 3.4% of global GHG emissions and could consume 19% of the global carbon budget by 2040.

    Why is Plastic Pollution So Difficult to Manage?

    1. Non-biodegradability: Plastics fragment into micro- and nano-particles, contaminating soil, water, and even human bloodstreams.
    2. Global spread: From Mount Everest to ocean trenches, no ecosystem is spared.
    3. Health risks: Microplastics pose risks to food chains, water safety, and respiratory and cardiovascular health.
    4. Economic burden: Poorer nations, with weak waste management, face disproportionate costs of uncontrolled plastic dumping.

    What Global Remedies Are Being Proposed?

    1. Legally binding agreement: In 2022, all 193 UN member states pledged at UNEA-5 to negotiate an international treaty to end plastic pollution.
    2. UNEP target: Ambition to cut plastic waste by 80% in two decades through innovation, design, and recycling.
    3. Reduce single-use plastics: Phasing out unnecessary items made from petrochemical feedstock is urgent.
    4. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Holding manufacturers accountable through deposit refunds, landfill taxes, and pay-as-you-throw systems.
    5. Recycling revolution: Currently, only 6% of plastics come from recycled sources. Scaling this up requires technology and market incentives.

    What Role Do Individuals and Media Play?

    1. Greener alternatives: Shifting to traditional, reusable products and eco-friendly materials.
    2. Awareness campaigns: Media’s power in shaping consumer habits and pressuring governments is significant.
    3. Behavioural change: Collective reduction in consumption is as important as systemic reform.

    Conclusion

    Plastic pollution exemplifies the contradictions of modern development—where convenience has bred crisis. The data suggests humanity stands at a civilisational crossroads: either continue unsustainable consumption or pivot towards circular, sustainable economies. For India, with its population, coastline, and developmental challenges, the issue is not peripheral but central to environmental governance, climate action, and public health.

    UPSC Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Linkage: Plastic and oil pollution are both marine pollutants of petrochemical origin, threatening biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal livelihoods. Like oil, plastics enter oceans in massive quantities (11 MT annually), fragmenting into microplastics that disrupt ecosystems. For India, with a long coastline and dependence on marine resources, the risks of livelihood loss, food insecurity, and ecological imbalance are particularly acute.

  • Bengaluru gets its 2nd Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)

    Why in the News?

    The Karnataka government declared 8.6 acres of green cover at Cantonment Railway Colony in Bengaluru as a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), the second such site in the city after Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra (GKVK).

    About Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS):

    • Legal Basis: Recognized under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 as ecologically sensitive areas of high biodiversity.
    • Notifying Authority: The State Government, in consultation with local bodies, can declare an area as a BHS.
    • Objective: Conserves wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species, vital for ecological balance.
    • Significance: Marked as ecologically fragile zones, essential for sustaining local ecosystems and long-term sustainability.
    • Community Role: Local communities and institutions are actively involved in management and protection.
    • Restrictions Put: Declaration does NOT restrict customary uses; aims to enhance quality of life through conservation.
    • Institutional Support: State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) assist in proposing, managing, and monitoring BHS.
    • First BHS in India: Nallur Tamarind Grove, Bengaluru, Karnataka, notified in 2007.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2