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Subject: Geography

  • Account for variations in oceanic salinity and discuss its multi-dimensional effects.

  • What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds in feeding more than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia?

  • Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005?

    As per UNDRR, Disaster risk reduction is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development.

    Measures Taken in India Before Sendai Framework (Pre-2015)

    Disaster Management Act, 2005 established NDMA, SDMA, DDMAs – India’s first legal-institutional framework for DRR.

    Formation of NDRF (2006) – a specialised, trained, and equipped response force for multi-hazard operations. Played a major role in Uttarakhand floods (2013).

    National Policy on Disaster Management (2009) – Shifted policy from relief to prevention, preparedness, and mitigation.

    National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (2011) – World Bank assisted programme for mitigating risks of cyclones in 8 cyclone prone coastal States

    Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS)

    Cyclone Risk Mitigation Infrastructure (CRMI)

    Technical Assistance for Capacity Building on Disaster Risk Management

    Project Management and Monitoring

    Measures Taken After Adoption of Sendai Framework (Post-2015)

    (Aligned with Sendai’s four priorities: risk knowledge, governance, investment, preparedness & BBB.)

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – India’s first national plan fully aligned with Sendai Framework, covering:

    Multi-hazard risk assessment,

    Prevention-mitigation strategies,

    Sector-wise responsibilities (health, housing, power, transport, education),

    Monitoring indicators aligned with Sendai’s seven global targets.

    Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (MHEWS) – integrates satellite, radar, and IoT data via the IMD’s Decision Support System (DSS). Improves accuracy by 20-40%. Apps used are

    MAUSAM: General weather forecasts.

    DAMINI: Lightning alerts.

    MEGHDOOT: Agromet advisories for farmers.

    Nature-Based Solutions – Mangrove restoration (MISHTI), wetland protection (Amrit Dharohar) to reduce cyclone/flood vulnerability.

    Shift in disaster-financing architecture – from earlier response-only funds to separate mitigation funds at national and state level as per recommendations of 15th FC

    Community-Based Disaster Management under Aapda Mitra/Aapda Sakhi.

    GIS-Based Hazard Mapping– Eg- National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM 2023) covers all Himalayan states.

    Global Efforts – Launched coalition of disaster disaster resilient infrastructure

    National Landslide Risk Mitigation Programme (NLRMP) –

    Cyclone Preparedness (Odisha Model) – Mass evacuations, cyclone shelters, and resilient infrastructure. Eg- Only 64 deaths in Cyclone Fani (2019).

    City/state-specific Heat Action Plans (HAPs) for heatwave prediction + response + healthcare preparedness. Eg- Ahmedabad HAP cut mortality by 30-40% since 2013.

    Difference between Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

    Disaster Specific

  • What are the consequences of spreading of ‘Dead Zones’ on marine ecosystem?

    A Dead Zone is an area of a water body (ocean, lake, or estuary) where oxygen levels are so low (hypoxia) that they can no longer support most marine life. It results from Eutrophication, which fuels algal blooms.

    Consequences of Spreading ‘Dead Zones’

    Mass Mortality of Benthic Life- Sedentary organisms like clams, oysters, and lobsters cannot flee oxygen-poor waters. Eg- “crab kills” along the Oregon coast in early 2026 due to hypoxic events.

    Loss of Marine Biodiversity – Sensitive species disappear while only hypoxia-tolerant organisms survive. Eg- Decline of benthic fauna in the Baltic Sea.

    Increase in Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) – Dead zones often coincide with toxic blooms that release neurotoxins.

    Decline in Coral and Seagrass Ecosystems – Hypoxia weakens coral reefs and seagrass beds that require oxygenated waters.

    Forced Habitat Migration- Eg- In the Gulf of America, shrimp populations have shifted to “crowded edges” of the dead zone, leading to over-competition for food.

    Disruption of Marine Food Webs- The loss of bottom-dwelling prey species starves higher-level predators.

    Nutritional & Reproductive Impairment- hypoxia causes endocrine disruption, leading to smaller eggs and reduced spawning success.

    Hypoxic zones favor resilient, “opportunistic” species that thrive in low-oxygen environments. Eg- jellyfish blooms in the Sea of Japan.

    Release of Toxic Substances – Oxygen-poor conditions lead to release of hydrogen sulfide and methane, harmful to marine life.

    Way Forward

    Nutrient Management Plans- Implementing Precision Agriculture to reduce fertilizer runoff.

    Riparian Buffer Zones- Creating “Green Belts” of vegetation along rivers to filter out nutrients before they reach the ocean. Eg- Chesapeake Bay Model.

    Upgrade Wastewater Treatment- Transitioning to Tertiary Treatment plants that specifically remove nitrogen and phosphorus.

    Restore Natural Filters- Large-scale restoration of Wetlands and Oysters, which act as natural water purifiers.

    Shifting to Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), where seaweed and shellfish absorb excess nutrients from fish farms.

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) – Coordinated management of coastal resources to reduce pollution and habitat degradation.

    Protecting ocean oxygen levels is essential for sustaining healthy marine ecosystems and the livelihoods dependent on them.

  • Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?

    The IRNSS, operationally named NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), is India’s indigenous satellite navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation.

    Need of IRNSS/NavIC

    Strategic Autonomy – Dependence on foreign systems like GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), or Galileo (EU) poses security risks, as access can be denied during conflicts. Eg- During the Kargil War (1999), USA denied GPS data to India.

    Sovereignty over Navigation – Provides India independent and reliable Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services over Indian territory and surrounding region.

    Regional Coverage – Covers India and a region extending 1,500 km beyond its borders, ensuring accurate navigation across South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.

    Civilian Applications – Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation; vehicle tracking; disaster management; mapping and geodetic surveys; mobile phone integration.

    Military Applications – Missile guidance, troop movement, naval operations, border surveillance.

    Economic Benefits – Supports precision agriculture, fisheries, transport logistics, and infrastructure development.

    How NavIC Helps in Navigation

    Constellation – 7 satellites (3 in Geostationary Orbit, 4 in Geosynchronous Orbit) provide continuous coverage over the Indian region.

    Dual Frequency – Operates on L5 and S-band, reducing errors caused by ionospheric delays and providing better accuracy than single-frequency systems.

    Accuracy – Provides position accuracy better than 20 metres in the primary service area and 10 metres for restricted (military) service.

    Two Services – Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian use and Restricted Service (RS) for authorised users (military, strategic).

    Integration with international systems like GPS for enhanced accuracy and reliability.

    Fishermen Safety – Indian Space Research Organisation provides NavIC-based communication devices to fishermen for receiving emergency alerts and location-based services.

    NavIC represents India’s technological self-reliance in the strategic domain of satellite navigation, aligning with the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat.

  • Define mantle plume and explain its role in plate tectonics.

    A mantle plume is a narrow, localized column of abnormally hot, buoyant rock that rises through the Earth’s mantle from the core-mantle boundary (approx. 2,900 km deep).

    Characteristics of Mantle Plumes

    Mushroom-shaped structure – Broad head and narrow tail.

    Temperature– Plumes are 100-300°C hotter than the surrounding ambient mantle.

    Buoyant upwelling due to lower density.

    Stationary relative to moving plates – Forms volcanic chains.

    Basalts derived from plumes show distinct isotopic and chemical signatures compared to mid-ocean ridge basalts. Eg- high MgO concentrations

    Role of mantle plumes in plate tectonics

    Plumes provide evidence of vertical convection within mantle.

    Intraplate Volcanism (Hotspots) – Mantle plumes create volcanic activity away from plate boundaries. Eg- Hawaiian Island chain formed over a Pacific plate hotspot.

    Formation of Volcanic Island Chains – As tectonic plates move over stationary plumes, a chain of volcanoes forms. Eg- Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain

    Continental Flood Basalts – Plume head eruption can cause massive basalt outpourings. Eg- Deccan Traps in India (~66 million years ago).

    Plate Breakup and Rifting – Mantle plumes can weaken lithosphere, initiating continental rifting.

    East African Rift System.

    Role in breakup of Gondwana

    Thermal Uplift of Lithosphere – Hot plume material causes crustal doming before volcanic eruption.

    Recent research suggests that the intense thermal weakening caused by a plume can cause a tectonic plate to collapse under its own weight, potentially initiating a new subduction zone.

    Plume activity and plate motion together form an integrated framework for understanding Earth’s tectonic evolution.

    2025 – Discuss how the changes in shape and sizes of continents and ocean basins of the planet take place due to tectonic movements of the crustal masses. (15)

    The Theory of Plate Tectonics, developed in the late 1960s, is based on earlier ideas of continental drift (Alfred Wegener) and seafloor spreading (Harry Hess). It states that the lithosphere is divided into rigid plates that move over the semi-fluid asthenosphere and modify the shape, size, and distribution of continents and ocean basins

    Changes in the shape and size of continents and ocean basins due to tectonic movements

    Divergent Plate Movement – Increase in ocean basin size and breakup of continents.

    Plates move apart → magma rises and solidifies to form a new oceanic crust.

    Causes seafloor spreading and widening of oceans.Eg- Expansion of the Atlantic Ocean along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. (2.5 cm per year.)

    Continental rifting leads to fragmentation of landmasses.

    East African Rift valley

    Formation of Linear Seas- Eg- Red Sea due to drifting of Arabian Plate away from the African Plate.

    Convergent Plate Movement – Shrinking of oceans and enlargement/upliftment of continents.

    Ocean-Continent Convergence

    Denser oceanic plate subducts, leading to

    formation of trenches and volcanic mountain chains.

    Reduction in ocean basin area

    Eg- Nazca Plate subducting under the South American Plate to form the Andes Mountains and the Peru-Chile Trench.

    The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking due to subduction along the “Ring of Fire”.

    Continent-Continent Convergence – Collision causes fold mountain formation and crustal thickening. Eg- Himalayas formed after closure of the Tethys Sea.

    Transform Plate Movement – Change in Continental Configuration

    Lateral sliding of plates causes horizontal displacement of landforms. Eg- San Andreas Fault.

    Modifies coastlines and continental margins.

    It also leads to periodic assembly and break-up of supercontinents such as Pangaea.

    These tectonic processes not only remodel the Earth’s surface but also influence climate, ocean circulation, biodiversity, and natural resource distribution.

  • Define blue revolution, explain the problems and strategies for pisciculture development in India.

    Blue Revolution (Neel Kranti Mission) is an initiative aimed at rapid and sustainable growth in the aquaculture and fisheries sector to increase production, enhance fishers’ income, and ensure nutritional security.

    Key Components of the Blue Revolution

    Scientific modernization. Eg- Biofloc, RAS.

    Infrastructure Modernization. Eg- fishing harbors, cold chains, and processing units.

    Species Diversification. Eg- focus on high-value species like Tilapia and Sea Bass.

    Sustainable Governance – “Ecosystem-based Fisheries Management”.

    Social Empowerment – Doubling Fishers income

    Problems in Pisciculture

    Weak centre-state coordination leading to policy fragmentation. Eg- inland fisheries are a State subject, while deep-sea activities fall under the Central Government.

    Inadequate institutional reach and limited last-mile delivery. Eg- exclusion of small fish farmers in eastern India from benefits of PMMSY

    Limited access to institutional credit and over dependence on informal finance leads to high input costs and working capital shortages. Eg- Low KCC coverage.

    Post-harvest losses – India loses 20-25% of fish produce due to poor storage and transport.

    Market intermediaries cause low price realisation for fish farmers.

    Small and fragmented holdings – Low economies of scale. Eg- Majority ponds are below 1 hectare.

    While small-scale fishers comprise 90% of the workforce, they contribute less than 10% of the marine catch

    Low Productivity – 4 to 5 kg/ day in India vs 250 kg/day in Norway

    Low skills – Limited adoption of scientific aquaculture.

    Absence of quality seed and high cost of formulated feed leads to low productivity and reduced profitability. Eg- Feed accounts for 60-70% of input cost.

    Low adoption of modern systems like Biofloc, RAS, cage culture

    Water pollution – Industrial effluents in rivers affect inland fisheries. Eg- Fish mortality in stretches of Yamuna and Godavari.

    Climate change – Erratic monsoons have affected breeding cycles of fisheries

    Climate-Driven Migration and Disease due to rising sea temperatures and water pollution. Eg- White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) in shrimps.

    Over-exploitation of marine resources – 90% of the global marine fish stocks have either been fully exploited or overfished or depleted (FAO)

    Strategies for pisciculture development

    Government Initiatives

    PM Matsya Sampada Yojana – Integrated value chain development

    Fisheries and aquaculture infrastructure development fund – concessional finance for cold storage

    PM Matsya Kisan Samridhi Sah-Yojana (PM-MKSSY) to formalize the unorganized sector and supporting MSMEs through digital IDs

    2026 Budget earmarked funds for integrated development of 500 reservoirs and Amrit Sarovars

    Other strategies needed

    Brood Banks and Hatchery Modernisation to ensure quality seed supply. Eg- Jayanti rohu.

    Promoting Fish Farmer Producer Organizations (FFPOs) to help small farmers gain “collective bargaining power” for bulk feed purchase and direct market access.

    Expansion of Culture Area – Bringing unused water bodies under aquaculture. Eg- wetland fisheries development.

    Affordable Institutional Credit – Universalisation of KCC for fishers and aquaculture farmers.

    Women’s Participation- Providing up to 60% subsidy for women-led aquaculture projects, particularly in ornamental fisheries and seaweed farming.

    Safety Nets- Accidental Insurance Scheme for fishers and the deployment of transponders on vessels for real-time safety tracking.

    Promotion of Modern Technologies for intensive and high-density farming. Eg- Biofloc and RAS units in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

    Scaling digital fish marketing for better price discovery. Eg- Platforms like Matsya Setu

    Integrated Fish Farming for income diversification. Eg- Fish + duck + paddy systems in Assam and West Bengal.

    GlobalGAP and BAP Certifications to tap into premium markets in Japan and the EU.

    Climate-resilient and Sustainable Aquaculture – Ecosystem-Based Management by adopting the FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.

    These can enable India to unlock its vast inland and marine fisheries potential and strengthen its blue economy.

  • Why is India taking keen interest in resources of Arctic Region?

    The Arctic region, once considered a remote and inaccessible area, has gained global prominence due to climate change, emerging sea routes, vast natural resources, and geopolitical competition.

    India’s Steps with Reference to the Arctic

    Himadri Station (2008)- India’s first permanent research base at Svalbard (Norway).

    IndARC (2014)- India’s first multi-sensor moored observatory in the Kongsfjorden fjord to monitor Arctic climate changes.

    India was granted Observer status in the Arctic Council in 2013

    Arctic Policy (2022)- six pillars

    Research, climate, and environmental protection

    Promoting economic and human development

    Enhancing transportation and connectivity

    Improving governance and international cooperation

    Building national capacity in Arctic studies.

    Polar Research Vessel (PRV)- indigenous ice-breaker to ensure independent logistical capability.

    Reasons Behind India’s Interest in the Arctic

    Arctic and Monsoon Linkages

    Arctic warming affects Himalayan cryosphere, monsoon patterns, and extreme weather events.

    Melting sea ice influences ocean circulation and jet streams, impacting Indian agriculture and water security.

    Geopolitical Reasons

    Voice in emerging Arctic governance – observer status in the Arctic Council helps India participate in rule-making for global commons.

    Balancing major power competition – Eg- By strengthening its presence, India counters China’s self-proclaimed “Near-Arctic State” status.

    Ensures India is not excluded from evolving Eurasian polar geopolitics. Eg- Collaboration with Norway and Iceland in polar research diplomacy.

    Geo-economic Reasons

    Access to critical minerals – Arctic has deposits of rare earths, nickel, cobalt, and phosphates, essential for India’s manufacturing and clean-tech sectors.

    New opportunities for trade and investment – Eg- Indian companies exploring LNG projects in the Russian Arctic.

    Blue economy prospects – Sustainable fisheries and bio-resources for food and pharmaceutical industries.

    Energy Security

    The Arctic holds nearly 13% of undiscovered oil and 30% of natural gas.

    Supports India’s energy security and transition to a gas-based economy.

    Eg- Indian investment in Vostok Oil and Yamal LNG projects (Russia).

    Clean energy research – Cooperation in offshore wind, hydrogen, and carbon sequestration studies in polar conditions.

    Connectivity and Maritime Trade

    Melting ice is opening Northern Sea Route (NSR) and Trans-Arctic routes These routes can-

    Reduce India-Europe travel distance by up to 40%

    Lower logistics cost and time.

    Strengthen India’s maritime trade and Sagarmala initiative.

    Reduces dependence on vulnerable chokepoints like the Suez Canal.

    Eg- Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor.

    India’s engagement reflects a responsible stakeholder approach, balancing environmental sustainability with strategic and economic interests

  • The ideal solution of depleting ground water resources in India is water harvesting system. How can it be made effective in urban areas?

    With nearly 18% of the world’s population but only 4% of its freshwater, India’s reliance on groundwater has reached a tipping point, making decentralized water harvesting not just an ideal solution, but a survival imperative.

    Depleting Groundwater Resources

    India is the world’s largest consumer of groundwater, extracting over 25% of the global total – more than China and the US combined.

    Over-Exploited Blocks-Roughly 14% of India’s 7,000+ assessment units are “Over-exploited”.

    Regional Crisis-In Gurgaon (2026), groundwater extraction reached 194.6% of its sustainable limit.

    The “Day Zero” Threat-21 major cities are projected to functionally exhaust their groundwater reserves by 2030.

    Northern India has seen water tables drop by an average of 1.5 cm per year over the last two decades.

    Deep-well samples in Delhi and Punjab now show Uranium levels exceeding BIS limits in 15% of cases due to over-extraction.

    Water Harvesting System as a Solution

    Bridging the Supply-Demand Gap-RWH captures monsoon runoff that would otherwise be lost to the sea.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)-Directs water into the ground to “bank” it for dry seasons.

    Improving Water Quality-Dilutes the concentration of nitrates, fluoride, and arsenic in the groundwater.

    Flood Mitigation-Reduces “peak flow” during monsoons, preventing urban drainage systems from overflowing.

    Energy Efficiency-Recharging local aquifers reduces the “lifting height” for pumps, saving significant electricity.

    Low-Cost Infrastructure-Decentralized RWH is cheaper than building massive dams and cross-country pipelines.

    Climate Change Adaptation – Enhances resilience against irregular rainfall patterns.

    Supplementing Domestic Water Supply – Eg- Housing societies in Pune use harvested rainwater for gardening and cleaning.

    Making Water Harvesting Effective in Urban Areas

    Incorporating rainwater harvesting in building by-laws. Eg- Tamil Nadu and Delhi mandate RWH systems in buildings above certain sizes.

    Revival of Urban Water Bodies – Restoration of lakes, tanks and wetlands improves recharge. Eg- Bengaluru lake rejuvenation projects

    Sponge City Infrastructure-Replacing asphalt with permeable pavements in parking lots and sidewalks.

    Borewell Injection-Using filtered rainwater to directly recharge exhausted private and public borewells.

    AI and IoT Monitoring-Using real-time sensors to track recharge volumes. Eg- Bengaluru’s 2026 “Digital Water Atlas.”

    Water Positive Incentives-Offering property tax rebates to societies that harvest more water than they consume.

    Restoration of Interlinked Lakes-Reviving historical drainage channels where one lake overflows into another. Eg- The Hebbal-Nagawara Valley project in Karnataka.

    Community Water Budgets-Empowering Ward Committees to map their local hydrogeology and manage “Ward Water Banks.”

    Wastewater Circularity-Using “greywater” for gardening and reserving 100% of rainwater for groundwater recharge.

    Hydrological Enforcement-Creating bodies like HYDRAA (Hyderabad) to demolish illegal encroachments on lake-beds and floodplains.

    Thus, water harvesting can significantly strengthen urban water security and climate resilience in India.

  • What is the significance of Industrial Corridors in India Identifying industrial corridors, explain their main characteristics.

    Industrial corridors are integrated economic regions developed along high-capacity transport networks to promote manufacturing, urbanisation, and investment through node-based industrial development and world-class infrastructure.

    Significance of Industrial Corridors in India

    Manufacturing-led Growth – Helps move towards the target of 25% manufacturing share in GDP.

    Employment Generation – NICDP projects are expected to generate approximately 1 million direct and up to 3 million indirect jobs.

    Logistics Cost Reduction – Integrated with Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC) → faster freight movement.

    Balanced Regional Development – Growth of backward regions Eg- Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor (AKIC) covering eastern states.

    Urbanisation – Planned greenfield smart cities with modern infrastructure. Eg- Dholera Special Investment Region (Gujarat).

    Export Promotion – Port-linked corridors enable export-oriented industries. Eg- Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC).

    Ancillary industrial growth and MSME Cluster Development. Eg- Eg- Auto and electronics clusters along Chennai Bangalore Industrial Corridor.

    Multi-modal connectivity – Power, roads, rail, logistics parks developed together. Eg- PM Gati Shakti integration.

    High-tech manufacturing zones – Eg- Semiconductor cluster in Dholera

    Major Industrial Corridors in India

    Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC)

    Chennai-Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (CBIC)

    Bengaluru-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (BMIC)

    Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial Corridor (AKIC)

    Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC)

    Hyderabad-Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (HBIC)

    Odisha Economic Corridor (OEC)

    Delhi-Nagpur Industrial Corridor (DNIC)

    Main Characteristics of Industrial Corridors

    Multi-modal Connectivity- Seamless integration of High-speed Rail, 6-8 lane Expressways, and Deep-water Ports. Eg- Dighi Port in DMIC.

    Plug-and-Play Infrastructure- Allotment of land with pre-cleared environmental permits and ready-to-use water, power, and gas connections.

    Greenfield Smart Cities- Entirely new urban centers built from scratch with ICT-enabled utilities. Eg- Dholera SIR.

    Walk-to-Work Culture- Residential zones are located within walking or cycling distance of industrial units to minimize commuting and pollution.

    ICT Integration- Using “Unified Logistics Interface Platform” (ULIP) and PM Gati Shakti for real-time tracking of cargo and efficient project management.

    Sector-Specific Clusters foster economies of scale. Eg- Pharma cluster in Zaheerabad or Agro-processing in Gaya

    Sustainability- Adoption of green building standards, water recycling, and massive renewable energy parks

    Single-Window Clearance- Streamlined regulatory processes through a digital interface

    PPP Model – Private sector participation in infrastructure and industry.

    Global Collaboration – Technology and finance support from international partners. Eg- Japan in DMIC, ADB in VCIC.

    Sustainable and Green Development – Eg- Use of renewable energy, zero liquid discharge systems.

    Industrial corridors are the pillars of Viksit Bharat @2047 and key to transition to a globally competitive manufacturing economy.