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Subject: Geography

  • How does the cryosphere affect global climate?

  • Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located nearer to crude oil producing areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications.

  • Mention the advantages of the cultivation of pulses because of which the year 2016 was declared as the International Year of Pulses by United Nations.

  • In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for development.” Discuss.

  • In what way can floods be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation and all – weather inland navigation in India?

  • Account for variations in oceanic salinity and discuss its multi-dimensional effects.

  • What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds in feeding more than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia?

  • Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005?

    As per UNDRR, Disaster risk reduction is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development.

    Measures Taken in India Before Sendai Framework (Pre-2015)

    Disaster Management Act, 2005 established NDMA, SDMA, DDMAs – India’s first legal-institutional framework for DRR.

    Formation of NDRF (2006) – a specialised, trained, and equipped response force for multi-hazard operations. Played a major role in Uttarakhand floods (2013).

    National Policy on Disaster Management (2009) – Shifted policy from relief to prevention, preparedness, and mitigation.

    National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (2011) – World Bank assisted programme for mitigating risks of cyclones in 8 cyclone prone coastal States

    Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS)

    Cyclone Risk Mitigation Infrastructure (CRMI)

    Technical Assistance for Capacity Building on Disaster Risk Management

    Project Management and Monitoring

    Measures Taken After Adoption of Sendai Framework (Post-2015)

    (Aligned with Sendai’s four priorities: risk knowledge, governance, investment, preparedness & BBB.)

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – India’s first national plan fully aligned with Sendai Framework, covering:

    Multi-hazard risk assessment,

    Prevention-mitigation strategies,

    Sector-wise responsibilities (health, housing, power, transport, education),

    Monitoring indicators aligned with Sendai’s seven global targets.

    Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (MHEWS) – integrates satellite, radar, and IoT data via the IMD’s Decision Support System (DSS). Improves accuracy by 20-40%. Apps used are

    MAUSAM: General weather forecasts.

    DAMINI: Lightning alerts.

    MEGHDOOT: Agromet advisories for farmers.

    Nature-Based Solutions – Mangrove restoration (MISHTI), wetland protection (Amrit Dharohar) to reduce cyclone/flood vulnerability.

    Shift in disaster-financing architecture – from earlier response-only funds to separate mitigation funds at national and state level as per recommendations of 15th FC

    Community-Based Disaster Management under Aapda Mitra/Aapda Sakhi.

    GIS-Based Hazard Mapping– Eg- National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM 2023) covers all Himalayan states.

    Global Efforts – Launched coalition of disaster disaster resilient infrastructure

    National Landslide Risk Mitigation Programme (NLRMP) –

    Cyclone Preparedness (Odisha Model) – Mass evacuations, cyclone shelters, and resilient infrastructure. Eg- Only 64 deaths in Cyclone Fani (2019).

    City/state-specific Heat Action Plans (HAPs) for heatwave prediction + response + healthcare preparedness. Eg- Ahmedabad HAP cut mortality by 30-40% since 2013.

    Difference between Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

    Disaster Specific

  • What are the consequences of spreading of ‘Dead Zones’ on marine ecosystem?

    A Dead Zone is an area of a water body (ocean, lake, or estuary) where oxygen levels are so low (hypoxia) that they can no longer support most marine life. It results from Eutrophication, which fuels algal blooms.

    Consequences of Spreading ‘Dead Zones’

    Mass Mortality of Benthic Life- Sedentary organisms like clams, oysters, and lobsters cannot flee oxygen-poor waters. Eg- “crab kills” along the Oregon coast in early 2026 due to hypoxic events.

    Loss of Marine Biodiversity – Sensitive species disappear while only hypoxia-tolerant organisms survive. Eg- Decline of benthic fauna in the Baltic Sea.

    Increase in Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) – Dead zones often coincide with toxic blooms that release neurotoxins.

    Decline in Coral and Seagrass Ecosystems – Hypoxia weakens coral reefs and seagrass beds that require oxygenated waters.

    Forced Habitat Migration- Eg- In the Gulf of America, shrimp populations have shifted to “crowded edges” of the dead zone, leading to over-competition for food.

    Disruption of Marine Food Webs- The loss of bottom-dwelling prey species starves higher-level predators.

    Nutritional & Reproductive Impairment- hypoxia causes endocrine disruption, leading to smaller eggs and reduced spawning success.

    Hypoxic zones favor resilient, “opportunistic” species that thrive in low-oxygen environments. Eg- jellyfish blooms in the Sea of Japan.

    Release of Toxic Substances – Oxygen-poor conditions lead to release of hydrogen sulfide and methane, harmful to marine life.

    Way Forward

    Nutrient Management Plans- Implementing Precision Agriculture to reduce fertilizer runoff.

    Riparian Buffer Zones- Creating “Green Belts” of vegetation along rivers to filter out nutrients before they reach the ocean. Eg- Chesapeake Bay Model.

    Upgrade Wastewater Treatment- Transitioning to Tertiary Treatment plants that specifically remove nitrogen and phosphorus.

    Restore Natural Filters- Large-scale restoration of Wetlands and Oysters, which act as natural water purifiers.

    Shifting to Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), where seaweed and shellfish absorb excess nutrients from fish farms.

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) – Coordinated management of coastal resources to reduce pollution and habitat degradation.

    Protecting ocean oxygen levels is essential for sustaining healthy marine ecosystems and the livelihoods dependent on them.

  • Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?

    The IRNSS, operationally named NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), is India’s indigenous satellite navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation.

    Need of IRNSS/NavIC

    Strategic Autonomy – Dependence on foreign systems like GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), or Galileo (EU) poses security risks, as access can be denied during conflicts. Eg- During the Kargil War (1999), USA denied GPS data to India.

    Sovereignty over Navigation – Provides India independent and reliable Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services over Indian territory and surrounding region.

    Regional Coverage – Covers India and a region extending 1,500 km beyond its borders, ensuring accurate navigation across South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.

    Civilian Applications – Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation; vehicle tracking; disaster management; mapping and geodetic surveys; mobile phone integration.

    Military Applications – Missile guidance, troop movement, naval operations, border surveillance.

    Economic Benefits – Supports precision agriculture, fisheries, transport logistics, and infrastructure development.

    How NavIC Helps in Navigation

    Constellation – 7 satellites (3 in Geostationary Orbit, 4 in Geosynchronous Orbit) provide continuous coverage over the Indian region.

    Dual Frequency – Operates on L5 and S-band, reducing errors caused by ionospheric delays and providing better accuracy than single-frequency systems.

    Accuracy – Provides position accuracy better than 20 metres in the primary service area and 10 metres for restricted (military) service.

    Two Services – Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian use and Restricted Service (RS) for authorised users (military, strategic).

    Integration with international systems like GPS for enhanced accuracy and reliability.

    Fishermen Safety – Indian Space Research Organisation provides NavIC-based communication devices to fishermen for receiving emergency alerts and location-based services.

    NavIC represents India’s technological self-reliance in the strategic domain of satellite navigation, aligning with the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat.