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Subject: Global Groupings and Conventions

Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.

  • The assault on multilateralism and international law

    Why in the News?

    The US’s independent actions could lead to global pushback, but they also create an opportunity for non-Western nations to step up as leaders.

    What are the key multilateral institutions and agreements from which the U.S. has signalled withdrawal under the Trump administration?

    • World Health Organization (WHO): The U.S. announced withdrawal in 2020, accusing WHO of mishandling the COVID-19 pandemic and being overly influenced by China.
    • United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC): The U.S. exited in 2018, citing alleged bias against Israel and ineffective handling of human rights abuses.  
    • Paris Climate Agreement: The U.S. formally withdrew in 2020, arguing that the agreement unfairly burdened its economy while benefiting competitors like China and India. Example: The withdrawal slowed global climate efforts, as the U.S. is one of the largest carbon emitters.
    • International Criminal Court (ICC): The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, rejecting its authority over American troops and allies. Example: Sanctions were placed on ICC officials investigating alleged U.S. war crimes in Afghanistan.
    • World Trade Organization (WTO): The U.S. blocked appointments to the WTO Appellate Body, crippling its ability to resolve trade disputes. Example: This led to a breakdown in the global trade dispute resolution system, impacting countries like India and China.

    What is the DEFUND Act?

    The Disengaging Entirely from the United Nations Debacle (DEFUND) Act is a proposed U.S. legislation introduced by Senator Mike Lee. It seeks to completely withdraw the U.S. from the United Nations (UN), repeal key participation laws, cut all funding, and revoke diplomatic immunity for UN officials within the U.S.

    Why does the proposed DEFUND Act pose a threat to the legitimacy of the United Nations?

    • Financial Crisis for the UN: The U.S. is the largest financial contributor to the UN, funding around 22% of its budget. The DEFUND Act would halt all U.S. contributions, severely affecting UN operations. Example: The UN’s peacekeeping missions and humanitarian aid programs in conflict zones like Syria and Yemen would face funding shortages.
    • Weakening of Multilateral Cooperation: The Act would repeal key legislation like the United Nations Participation Act of 1945, severing U.S. engagement with the UN. This could encourage other nations to follow suit, undermining the UN’s credibility. Example: Without U.S. involvement, the UN Security Council may struggle to enforce resolutions, reducing its effectiveness in global crisis management.
    • Legal and Diplomatic Challenges: The Act would revoke the diplomatic immunity of UN officials in the U.S., disrupting UN functions and diplomatic activities. Example: The UN Headquarters in New York might face operational difficulties, making it harder to conduct international negotiations.

    How has the U.S. administration’s stance on the International Criminal Court (ICC) impacted global accountability for human rights violations?

    • Undermining International Justice Mechanisms: The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, accusing the court of targeting American personnel and allies. This weakened the ICC’s ability to investigate war crimes and crimes against humanity, particularly in conflict zones like Afghanistan and Palestine.
    • Encouraging Non-Cooperation with the ICC: The U.S.’s non-recognition of the ICC has emboldened other nations to ignore its rulings, reducing its global influence. Countries under investigation may refuse cooperation, limiting the court’s effectiveness in ensuring accountability.
      • Example: Israel rejected ICC jurisdiction in its war crimes probe in Palestinian territories, citing U.S. opposition to the investigation.
    • Weakening the Principle of Universal Justice: By discrediting the ICC and blocking investigations, the U.S. has set a precedent for selective justice, where powerful nations can evade accountability while weaker states remain subject to scrutiny.
      • Example: The ICC struggles to prosecute major powers like China or Russia, as the U.S.’s stance encourages a lack of enforcement in high-stakes human rights cases.

    What are the chances for non-Western nations to assume global leadership roles?

    • Expanding Economic and Political Influence – Emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil are increasing their global footprint through trade, technology, and strategic alliances.
      Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) enhances its economic influence across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
    • Strengthening Regional and Multilateral Institutions – Non-Western nations are actively shaping global governance through regional organizations and alternative institutions.
      Example: The BRICS bloc (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) launched the New Development Bank (NDB) as an alternative to Western-led financial institutions.
    • Leadership in Global Crisis Management – Developing nations are taking initiative in addressing global challenges like climate change, health crises, and digital transformation.
      Example: India’s Vaccine Maitri initiative supplied COVID-19 vaccines to over 100 countries, reinforcing its role in global health diplomacy.

    What would be the impact on India?

    • Challenges to Multilateralism and Global Governance: The U.S. exit from key institutions like the UN, WHO, and WTO weakens the global rules-based order, making international cooperation more fragmented. India, which strongly supports multilateral diplomacy, may face difficulties in global negotiations, including trade, climate change, and security.
      • Example: The U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement (2017) reduced global climate finance commitments, impacting India’s renewable energy goals.
    • Opportunity for India to Assume Leadership: As the U.S. retreats, India can play a more prominent role in shaping multilateral decision-making, advocating for reforms in the UNSC and WTO, and positioning itself as a bridge between developing and developed nations.
      • Example: During the G-20 Foreign Ministers’ Meeting (2025), India emphasized the need for inclusive multilateralism, strengthening its diplomatic standing.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Multilateral Leadership – India should actively engage in UN reforms, WTO negotiations, and climate diplomacy, positioning itself as a stabilizing force in global governance.
    • Diversify Strategic Alliances – India must deepen partnerships with EU, ASEAN, and African nations, enhancing trade, security, and diplomatic ties to counterbalance U.S. disengagement.

    Mains PYQ:

     Q “Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic. (UPSC 2020)

    Reason: The World Health Organization (WHO) has faced calls for withdrawal by certain nations, highlighting a challenge to multilateral institutions. This PYQ directly assesses the role and, by extension, the relevance and effectiveness of the WHO in a global crisis, which is pertinent to discussions on the assault on multilateralism.

  • 30th Session of International Seabed Authority (ISA)

    Why in the News?

    The 30th Session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has officially commenced in Kingston, Jamaica, on March 17, 2025.

    About the International Seabed Authority (ISA)

    • ISA is an autonomous international organization created under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to Part XI of the UNCLOS.
    • It regulates and manages mineral-resource activities in the “Area”—the seabed and ocean floor beyond national jurisdictions.
    • It is headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica
    • It has 168 Member States, including India, and the European Union
    • Mandate:
      • Regulate exploration and exploitation of deep-sea minerals.
      • Protect the marine environment from harmful effects of seabed activities.
      • Encourage marine scientific research and promote the sustainable use of oceans.
    • The ISA manages about 54% of the world’s oceans, ensuring activities are carried out for the benefit of all humankind and to protect the marine environment.

    Role in Regulating Deep-Sea Mining

    The ISA is responsible for enforcing the Mining Code, which governs all mineral activities in the International Seabed Area. It includes:

    • Regulation of Exploration: Grants exploration licenses for assessing mineral deposits in deep-sea areas, ensuring scientifically responsible activities.
    • Environmental Protection: Sets environmental standards and ensures impact assessments before mining starts.
    • Development of Mining Code: Continuously updates the Mining Code to address scientific, technological, and environmental concerns.
    • Oversight and Compliance: Monitors activities of contractors and member states, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental safeguards.

    India and ISA

    • In January 2024, India submitted two exploration applications in the Indian Ocean for:
      • Polymetallic sulphides in the Carlsberg Ridge.
      • Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount.
    • India holds two active exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules and sulphides in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and Ridge.
    • India seeks access to critical minerals for energy transition and technological growth, balancing economic needs with sustainable practices.
    • India actively participates in Mining Code negotiations, aligning its actions with international legal standards and environmental protocols.

    PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?
    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Five Eyes Alliance (FVEY)

    Why in the News?

    Recently a White House official has proposed expelling Canada from the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance. This comes as Donald Trump pressures Canada, even suggesting it could be transformed into the 51st U.S. state.

    About the Five Eyes Alliance (FVEY):

    • The FVEY is a global intelligence-sharing network comprising 5 Anglosphere countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and the United States.
    • Established in 1946 following the UKUSA Agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom, it is one of the most secretive and influential alliances in global intelligence and security.
    • The alliance primarily focuses on sharing intelligence, especially signals intelligence (SIGINT), and collaborates on security matters like counterterrorism, cybersecurity, and geopolitical monitoring.
    • It plays a pivotal role in global surveillance programs, such as ECHELON, and is a key player in shaping international intelligence policy.
    • Members of the FVEY:
      1. Australia: Plays a key role in monitoring the Asia-Pacific region and contributes to SIGINT and cybersecurity efforts.
      2. Canada: Contributes significantly to global communications intelligence, focusing on networks and signals intelligence.
      3. New Zealand: Has a relatively reserved role but provides valuable intelligence, particularly in the Pacific region.
      4. United Kingdom: Works closely with the United States and is instrumental in intelligence gathering across Europe and the Middle East.
      5. United States: The largest contributor of intelligence, particularly in global SIGINT, and leads the alliance in intelligence operations.
    • Mandate:
      • The Five Eyes primarily focuses on intelligence sharing, especially signals intelligence (intercepted communications, satellite data, etc.), but has expanded to include human intelligence (HUMINT), geospatial intelligence (GEOINT), and cybersecurity.
      • The alliance works on global surveillance programs, collecting data on adversarial governments, counterterrorism efforts, and counterintelligence operations.
      • A key principle of the alliance is the “no third-party rule,” meaning intelligence shared among member countries is not passed on to non-member states without permission.

    PYQ:

    [2020] “Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss.”

     

  • International Criminal Court (ICC)

    Why in the News?

    The International Criminal Court (ICC) has taken into custody former Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte on charges of crimes against humanity, linked to his infamous “war on drugs”.

    About the International Criminal Court (ICC)

    • The ICC is the world’s first permanent international court established to prosecute individuals responsible for the gravest crimes of global concern.
    • Founded under the Rome Statute in 1998, it became operational in 2002 and is headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands.
    • The ICC has jurisdiction over 4 core international crimes:
    1. War crimes
    2. Crimes against humanity
    3. Genocide
    4. Crimes of aggression
    • It has 125 member states, signatories to the Rome Statute, though major powers like India, the US, China, Russia, Israel, and Ukraine are NOT members due to concerns over sovereignty and political misuse.
    • The ICC’s budget, primarily funded by member states with additional voluntary contributions, for 2025 is approximately €195 million.
    • The ICC structure includes 18 judges elected for 9-year terms and an independent Office of the Prosecutor responsible for investigations and prosecutions.
    • Key bodies include the Trust Fund for Victims, a Detention Centre, and the Assembly of States Parties, which oversees its administrative functions.
    • The ICC lacks an enforcement mechanism and depends on member states’ cooperation for executing arrest warrants, gathering evidence, and enforcing sentences.

    Reach of an ICC Warrant:

    • Applicability:
      • Applies to crimes committed by nationals of member states or on member state territories.
      • Maintains jurisdiction over crimes committed before a state withdraws from membership.
    • State Obligations:
      • Member states must execute ICC arrest warrants under the Rome Statute.
      • Non-compliance can lead to reporting to the Assembly of States Parties and potential escalation to the UN Security Council (UNSC).
      • This applies particularly in cases involving UNSC-mandated probes, like Darfur and Libya.
    • Challenges to Enforcement:
      • Non-member states (e.g. US, Russia, China) are not bound by ICC warrants.
      • Political considerations lead to inconsistent compliance.
    • Special Mechanisms:
      • In 2016, the ICC formed an Arrest Working Group to improve intelligence-sharing and warrant execution.
    • Duterte Case Implications:
      • Even after Philippines’ withdrawal in 2019, the ICC retains jurisdiction for crimes committed from 2011-2019.
      • Duterte’s arrest highlights how domestic politics, such as the collapse of the Duterte-Marcos alliance, can influence warrant execution.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Consider the following statements:

    1.The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute nationals of even those States that have not ratified the Rome Statute.

    2. The International Criminal Court is a ‘court of last resort’ intended to complement national judicial systems.

    3. The United Nations Security Council can refer a situation to the Prosecutor of the ICC even if the State concerned is not a party to the Statute.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 2 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • [15th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Modern day summitry, its perils and its prospects

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q)  The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (2023)

    Mentor’s Comment: This question focused on India’s strategic positioning and alliances with the West, relates to the broader context of high-level summit diplomacy and strategic interactions between nations

    A strong leader is often seen as someone who holds significant power, shaping both government policies and their political party. This leadership style is debated, but many agree it can be useful in politics and diplomacy. Leaders like Donald Trump and Narendra Modi are considered strong leaders. Both actively engage in summit diplomacy, which has both advantages and risks. While decisive leadership can bring benefits, relying too much on personal judgment can lead to problems. Despite these challenges, summit diplomacy has become a key tool for powerful leaders in handling major global issues like war and peace.

    Today’s editorial highlights the importance of summit diplomacy and the key traits of a strong leader. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Despite unplanned meetings like Trump’s, summit diplomacy will remain important in global relations.

    What are the key characteristics of a “strong leader” in the context of modern politics and diplomacy?

    • Centralization of Power: A strong leader often consolidates power, making key policy and political decisions with minimal consultation. Example: Vladimir Putin’s centralized control over Russian politics and military decisions.
    • Assertive Foreign Policy and Summit Diplomacy: They engage directly in high-profile diplomatic negotiations, often prioritizing personal rapport over traditional diplomatic channels. Example: Donald Trump’s direct summits with Kim Jong-un to negotiate North Korea’s nuclear program.
    • Image Building and Popular Appeal: They craft a strong public persona through rhetoric, social media, and large-scale events to project authority and national pride. Example: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s use of mass rallies and media control to consolidate power in Turkey.
    • Decisive but Controversial Decision-Making: They make bold decisions, sometimes bypassing institutional checks, which can lead to both positive reforms and authoritarian tendencies. Example: Xi Jinping’s removal of term limits in China, allowing him to rule indefinitely.
    Why is summit diplomacy considered both beneficial and problematic in resolving international conflicts?

    Benefits of summit diplomacy: 

    • Direct and Efficient Decision-Making: Summits allow leaders to bypass bureaucratic delays and make high-stakes decisions quickly. Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) saw U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev negotiate directly, preventing nuclear war.
    • Confidence-Building and Diplomatic Trust: Face-to-face interactions help build mutual trust and diplomatic relationships between nations. Example: The Reagan-Gorbachev Summits (1985-1988) played a key role in reducing Cold War tensions and leading to nuclear arms reduction.
    • Breakthroughs in Long-Standing Disputes: Summit diplomacy has resolved historical disputes that traditional diplomacy failed to address. Example: The Camp David Accords (1978) led to peace between Egypt and Israel after decades of hostility.
    • Symbolic and Strategic Value: High-profile summits reinforce a country’s global leadership and strategic partnerships. Example: The Singapore Summit (2018) between Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un, which temporarily reduced tensions on the Korean Peninsula.
    • Crisis Management and De-escalation: Summits provide a platform for crisis diplomacy, helping to prevent conflicts from escalating into full-scale wars. Example: The Dayton Accords (1995) ended the Bosnian War by bringing together leaders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia for direct negotiations.

    Problems of summit diplomacy: 

    • Risk of Superficial Agreements: Leaders often prioritize political optics over substantive solutions, leading to vague or unenforceable agreements. Example: The Minsk Agreements (2014-2015) aimed at resolving the Ukraine conflict but lacked effective implementation mechanisms.
    • Personal Egos and Power Imbalances: Strong-willed leaders may focus more on personal victories rather than genuine conflict resolution. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy Summit (2025), where public confrontations and political grandstanding overshadowed meaningful negotiations on Ukraine.

    How did the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges highlight the complexities and risks of pseudo-summit diplomacy?

    • Blurred Lines Between Diplomacy and Personal Interests: Instead of focusing purely on state interests, pseudo-summit diplomacy can be influenced by personal or political gains. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy phone call (2019) became controversial when Trump allegedly pressured Zelenskyy to investigate Joe Biden’s son, intertwining diplomacy with U.S. domestic politics.
    • Lack of Institutional Safeguards: Informal or direct leader-to-leader diplomacy can bypass traditional diplomatic channels, reducing oversight and accountability. Example: The absence of career diplomats in the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges led to concerns over improper diplomatic conduct and potential abuse of power.
    • Vulnerability to Misinformation and Manipulation: Without structured diplomatic engagement, such interactions can be misused for propaganda or misinterpreted in ways that escalate tensions. Example: The impeachment inquiry against Trump was fueled by the whistleblower complaint alleging that the U.S. was leveraging military aid for political favors.

    What should India learn from this? (Way forward)

    • Institutionalize Diplomatic Processes: Informal leader-to-leader diplomacy should not replace structured diplomatic engagement involving foreign service professionals.
      • India should prioritize institutional mechanisms (e.g., MEA-led negotiations) to ensure consistency and avoid undue political influence in international relations.
    • Avoid Mixing Domestic Politics with Foreign Policy: Diplomatic engagements must remain separate from electoral or partisan interests to maintain credibility.
      • India must ensure that foreign policy decisions are not dictated by short-term political gains and avoid using international diplomacy for domestic political narratives.
    • Strengthen Transparency and Accountability: Diplomatic engagements should be conducted with oversight to prevent misuse or misinterpretation.
      • India should continue using parliamentary committees and professional diplomats to maintain transparency and avoid secretive deals that could lead to unintended consequences.

  • [pib] United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW)

    Why in the News?

    India’s Delegation led by Union Minister for Women and Child Developments will participate in the 69th session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW).

    About United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW):

    Details
    Establishment and Mandate
    • Founded in 1946 by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) through Resolution 11(II).
    • Initially focused on women’s political, economic, civil, social, and educational rights.
    • Expanded in 1996 to include monitoring the Beijing Declaration and integrating gender perspectives into UN activities.
    Structure and Membership
    • Composed of 45 member states elected by ECOSOC based on geographical representation.
    • 13 from Africa, 11 from Asia, 9 from Latin America and the Caribbean, 8 from Western Europe and other States, 4 from Eastern Europe.
    • Members serve a four-year term.
    Key Roles and Responsibilities
    • Policy Formulation: Establishes global norms and standards for gender equality.
    • Monitoring Progress: Reviews gender-related commitments, including the Beijing Declaration.
    • Advocacy and Awareness: Conducts research, publishes reports, and promotes women’s rights globally.
    • Collaboration: Works with UN entities, NGOs, and civil society organizations to strengthen gender equality.
    Major Contributions Drafted key conventions like:

    • Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1953)
    • Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (1957)
    • Convention on Consent to Marriage (1962)
    • Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979).
    • Influenced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
    • Led preparatory work for the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995).
    Annual Sessions and Key Themes
    • Held annually at UN Headquarters, New York.
    • Engages member states, NGOs, and UN agencies in discussions on gender-related policies.

     

    PYQ:

    [2009] With reference to the United Nations, consider the following statements:

    1. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN consists of 24 member States.
    2. It is elected by a 2/3rd majority of the General Assembly for a 3-year term.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3)

    Why in the News?

    India launched the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3), a multi-nation alliance for city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and private sector partnerships for sustainable urban development.

    What is the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3)?

    • The C-3 is a multi-nation alliance launched by India at the 12th Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific in Jaipur.
    • It aims to facilitate city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and private sector partnerships to promote circular economy principles and sustainable urban development.
    • It is led by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (India), United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD), and the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES).
    • The forum will adopt the Jaipur Declaration (2025-2034), which is a non-political, non-binding commitment that will guide efforts towards resource efficiency and sustainable urban growth in the next decade.

    Key Features of C-3:

    • Supported by International Organizations: Backed by UNESCAP, Japan’s Ministry of Environment, and other global partners.
    • Circular Economy Focus: Encourages reuse, recycling, remanufacturing, and composting to reduce waste.
    • Global Collaboration: Involves local governments, private sector actors, and academia to drive policy and innovation.
    • Integration with SDGs: Aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to climate action and responsible consumption.

    PYQ:

    [2018] “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”. Comment on the progress made in India in this regard.

     

  • In news: Arab League

    Why in the News?

    The Arab League has strongly rejected US President Donald Trump’s proposal for Gaza relocation, calling it unacceptable.

    arab league

    About the Arab League

    • The Arab League was founded on March 22, 1945, in Cairo, Egypt.
    • Its founding members included Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.
    • The primary goals of the Arab League include:
      • Promoting economic, cultural, political, and military cooperation among Arab states.
      • Safeguarding the independence and sovereignty of its members.
      • Addressing regional conflicts through diplomatic engagement and coordination.
    • The League operates on consensus-based decision-making, meaning all member states must agree on major resolutions.
    • It holds regular summits and meetings where Arab leaders discuss and formulate policies.
    • Specialized councils and committees focus on key areas like economic affairs, defense, social welfare, and education.
    • Organisation Structure:
      • Today, it has 22 member states and several observer nations.
      • Members: Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Kuwait, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, UAE, and Yemen.
      • Observer Nations: Several non-Arab nations, including Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Venezuela, hold observer status but do not have voting rights.

    Key Achievements of the Arab League:

    • Arab Peace Initiative (2002): Proposed a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
    • Military Coordination: Facilitated joint military efforts in various regional conflicts.
    • Economic Integration: Established the Arab Free Trade Area to promote intra-regional trade.
    • Cultural and Educational Exchange Programs: Strengthened cooperation in education, research, and cultural preservation.

     

    PYQ:

    [2023] Consider the following statements :

    Statement-I: Israel has established diplomatic relations with some Arab States.
    Statement-II: The ‘Arab Peace Initiative’ mediated by Saudi Arabia was signed by Israel and Arab League.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

     

  • India as a bridge between the Global North and South

    Why in the News?

    At the 18th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (2025) and the 3rd Voice of Global South Summit (2024), PM of India emphasised India’s leadership in advocating inclusive global governance and amplifying the Global South’s voice.

    How can India effectively bridge the divide between the Global North and South?

    • Alternate Paradigm of Development Cooperation: India needs to reinforce its call for an alternative development cooperation model that is not solely top-down and dictated by the Global North. It should focus on equal partnerships, but avoid an “India-first” approach, being open to learning from other Global South countries to address domestic challenges.
    • Human-Centric Approach: India has partnered with countries like UAE, Japan, and Saudi Arabia under agreements like the India-UAE Skill Harmonization Initiative, ensuring Indian workers are trained to meet global skill standards. This model can be expanded to Global South nations, helping them create skilled labour forces for industrial growth.
    • Advocating for Inclusive Global Governance: India can push for reforms in international institutions like the UN, WTO, IMF, and World Bank to better represent Global South interests. Example: India championed the inclusion of the African Union in the G20 during its presidency in 2023, making the grouping more representative.
    • Learning and Listening: India needs to listen to the Global South to be a good leader, using trilateral partnerships and increased engagement with new partners as a learning process to scale up India-led global initiatives.

    What are the key priorities and concerns of the Global South that India can champion?

    • Debt Relief and Fair Financial Structures: Many developing nations are burdened by unsustainable debt, often due to high-interest loans from global financial institutions and major lenders like China. Example: India has advocated for debt restructuring in international forums like the G20 and supports initiatives like the Common Framework for Debt Treatment to assist Global South nations.
    • Climate Justice and Sustainable Development: The Global South demands climate finance, technology transfer, and a fair transition to clean energy without compromising growth. Example: India spearheaded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to help developing nations access affordable solar energy and pushed for climate finance commitments at COP summits.
    • Equitable Global Trade and Market Access: Many Global South nations struggle with restricted market access, unfair subsidies in developed countries, and dependence on primary commodity exports. Example: India has advocated for WTO reforms, sought duty-free access for developing countries’ exports, and promoted initiatives like ‘Make in Africa’ to reduce dependency on Western economies.
    • Food and Energy Security: Rising food and fuel prices disproportionately impact Global South nations, making self-sufficiency in agriculture and energy a key concern. Example: India’s export of wheat and rice during global food crises and partnerships in biofuel development, such as the Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA), help address these concerns.
    • Technology and Digital Inclusion: The digital divide limits economic opportunities in many developing nations, making access to digital infrastructure and AI-driven solutions crucial. Example: India’s Aadhaar-based digital public infrastructure and UPI payment system have been shared with countries like Sri Lanka and Mauritius, promoting financial inclusion and governance reforms.

    How can India balance its relationships with both to foster unified solutions? (Way forward)

    • Strategic Multi-Alignment: India follows a multi-aligned foreign policy, maintaining strong ties with the U.S. and Europe while deepening its engagement with Global South nations. Example: India’s participation in the Quad (with the U.S., Japan, and Australia) while simultaneously leading the Voice of Global South Summits showcases its balancing act.
    • Leveraging Common Agendas: India identifies shared global challenges like climate change, digital transformation, and healthcare to foster collaboration between developed and developing nations. Example: India played a key role in securing climate finance commitments for developing countries during its G20 presidency in 2023, aligning Global South needs with Global North priorities.
    • Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy: India uses its democratic values, historical non-alignment stance, and rich cultural heritage to maintain trust across geopolitical divides. Example: India’s expansion of diplomatic missions in Africa, the International Solar Alliance (ISA), and Yoga Diplomacy have helped strengthen relationships across both blocs.
    • Promoting Fair Investment Practices: Unlike China’s debt-driven infrastructure projects, India focuses on sustainable and transparent investment models that ensure local benefits. Example: India’s development assistance to Africa through concessional credit lines and capacity-building programs, such as the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC), contrasts with China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
    • Institutionalizing Global Development Initiatives: India is working towards creating its own robust mechanisms for international development cooperation while collaborating with established institutions. Example: India’s push for the African Union’s inclusion in G20 and engagement in trilateral cooperation with France and the UAE for African development reflects its long-term vision of bridging the Global North-South divide.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.  (UPSC IAS/2018)

    Q The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order.’ Elaborate. (2019)

  • An alliance of democracies with India at its core

    Why in the News?

    Europe and India need a stronger, more practical partnership and together with the United States, they can become an unbeatable force.

    Why do all democratic countries need to come together? 

    • Unified Front Against Authoritarianism: Democracies can counter coercive tactics and aggression from authoritarian regimes like China and Russia by standing together to deter threats to vulnerable nations, and reinforcing global stability.
    • Advocating Democratic Principles: A collective alliance provides a platform to promote democratic values such as human rights, the rule of law, and free markets fostering an international environment supportive of democracy.
    • Addressing Global Challenges Collaboratively: Democracies can pool resources and expertise to tackle global issues like climate change, terrorism, and public health crises through joint strategies and initiatives.
    • Strengthening Economic Ties: Enhanced economic cooperation within an alliance can promote free trade, reduce barriers, and create a resilient network to counter economic coercion from non-democratic states.
    • Bolstering Democratic Resilience: By sharing best practices, democracies can strengthen their institutions, address internal polarisation, and enhance resilience against threats to their democratic systems.

    What is the strategic importance of India in a global alliance of democracies?

    • Geopolitical Counterbalance: India serves as a crucial counterbalance to China in the Indo-Pacific region.
      • As a democracy with significant economic growth potential, India’s alignment with European democracies can help counter authoritarian influences, particularly from Russia and China, which pose threats to global democratic norms.
    • Economic Partnership: The EU-India relationship is economically significant, with India projected to become the world’s third-largest economy in the next decade.
      • Strengthening trade ties can enhance economic security for both parties and reduce dependency on China. The EU has recognised India as a ‘Trusted Partner’ in critical sectors such as technology and pharmaceuticals.
    • Shared Values: Both Europe and India share foundational values of democracy, rule of law, and human rights. This commonality provides a strong basis for collaboration on global issues such as climate change, security, and sustainable development.

    How can India contribute to the promotion and protection of democratic norms internationally?

    • Promoting Democratic Values: India can advocate for democratic governance and human rights on international platforms, leveraging its status as the world’s largest democracy to influence other nations positively.
    • Collaborative Initiatives: Through partnerships like the Trade and Technology Council (TTC), India can collaborate with Europe on emerging technologies and critical industries.
      • Such cooperation can promote transparency and ethical standards in technology development.
    • Defense Cooperation: India’s existing defense collaborations with the U.S. and its role in multilateral security frameworks like the Quad can be expanded to include European partners, enhancing collective security against authoritarian regimes.

    What challenges does India face in leading or participating in this alliance?

    • Balancing Relations with Russia and China: India’s historical ties with Russia complicate its position within a democratic alliance. While it seeks to maintain these relationships for strategic reasons, it must also navigate criticism from Western allies regarding its stance on Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
    • Internal Democratic Challenges: India faces significant internal challenges related to its democratic processes, including concerns about political dissent and civil liberties.
      • Addressing these issues is essential for India to lead effectively within a global democratic alliance.
    • Trade Negotiation Stagnation: Ongoing negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between the EU and India have faced hurdles due to disagreements over sustainability measures and human rights issues.
      • Progress in these negotiations is crucial for realizing the full potential of their partnership.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Internal Democracy and Rule of Law: India should address domestic concerns related to political dissent, civil liberties, and democratic processes to enhance its credibility and leadership role within a global democratic alliance.
    • Expanding Strategic Partnerships: India should accelerate negotiations on trade agreements, deepen collaboration in critical sectors like technology and defense, and align with democratic allies to counter authoritarian influences effectively.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Indian and USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based. (UPSC IAS/2018)