💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Subject: History

  • Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Why in the News?

    A recent archaeological survey has confirmed that Daojali Hading, located in Assam’s Dima Hasao district, was a Neolithic habitation zone over 2,700 years ago.

    About Daojali Hading Neolithic Site:

    • Location: It is an important Neolithic archaeological site located in Dima Hasao district, Assam, within the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest.
    • How old is it: Recent surveys by a multidisciplinary team have confirmed the site as a settled Neolithic habitation zone, over 2,700 years old.
    • Key discoveries:
      • Furnace remains and iron slag, indicating early metallurgical activity.
      • Cord-marked pottery, grinding stones, mortars and pestles, and polished stone tools such as arrowheads, celts, and adzes.
    • Significance: These findings suggest that Daojali Hading was not just a tool-making site, but a functioning settlement where people lived, cooked, crafted tools, and worked with metals.

    Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Back2Basics: Neolithic Period in India

    • The Neolithic Age in India began around 7,000 B.C. and lasted until 1,000 B.C. It is the final phase of the Stone Age, following the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages.
    • This period is marked by:
      • The beginning of settled agriculture andthe  domestication of animals.
      • Use of polished stone tools like axes, celts, and chisels.
      • Construction of mud and reed houses, sometimes using mud bricks.
      • Introduction of pottery in forms like grey ware, black burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
      • A community lifestyle with shared ownership of land and tools.
    • Neolithic people in India grew wheat, barley, rice, cotton, horse gram, and ragi, and domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.
    • They lived in circular or rectangular houses, near rivers and lakes, and relied on hunting, fishing, and early farming.

    Major Neolithic Sites in India:

    Region Site Key Features
    North-Western India Burzahom (Kashmir) Pit dwellings, stone tools, and animal domestication
    Gufkral (Kashmir) Early agriculture and handmade pottery
    North India Chirand (Bihar) Polished tools, fishing economy
    North-East India Daojali Hading (Assam) Discussed above.
    South India Utnur (Andhra Pradesh) Large stone structures, farming tools
    Pakistan (Indian Subcontinent) Mehrgarh (Balochistan) Earliest Neolithic site, settled farming, and granaries

     

    [UPSC 2021] Question: Consider the following pairs:

    Historical place: Well known for

    1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

    2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art

    3. Ganeshwar: Copper artefacts

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

     

  • 300th Birth Anniversary of Lokmata Ahilyabai Holkar 

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister paid tributes to Lokmata Ahilyabai Holkar on her 300th birth anniversary.

    About Ahilyabai Holkar:

    • Early Life: Born on May 31, 1725, in Chondi village, (in erstwhile Ahilyanagar District) Maharashtra, Ahilyabai belonged to the Shephard community. Her father, a village head, taught her to read and write—rare for girls then.
    • Marriage and Loss: Married to Khande Rao Holkar in 1733, she was widowed in 1754. Her father-in-law, Malhar Rao Holkar, saw her potential and stopped her from committing sati.
    • Rise to power: After the deaths of her husband, father-in-law, and son, she became ruler of Malwa in 1765 with support from the Peshwa and her army.
    • Capital and Leadership: She moved the capital to Maheshwar, making it a centre of culture, governance, and trade.
    • Military and Administration: Ahilyabai personally led armies and appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar as military commander. She promoted justice, welfare, and agricultural growth.

    Legacy and Contributions:

    • Temple Restoration: Rebuilt presend-day Kashi Vishwanath Temple in 1780 and renovated shrines across India, including in Somnath, Haridwar, Pushkar, and Rameswaram.
    • Pilgrim Support: Built rest houses, pilgrim shelters, and ghats to support religious travellers.
    • Maheshwari Sari and Weavers: Promoted the handloom industry, empowering local weavers and women economically.
    • Social Reforms: Protected widows’ rights, supported tribal communities, and ran a secular and inclusive administration.
    • Cultural Patronage: Her court welcomed poets and scholars, including Moropant and Khushali Ram, making Maheshwar an intellectual hub.
    • Peaceful Rule: Her 30-year reign was free from war, making Malwa a rare place of peace and prosperity in a chaotic era.
    • Recognition: Jawaharlal Nehru called her an able ruler; British historian John Keay called her “The Philosopher Queen”.
    • Ongoing Honour: A proposal exists to rename Ahmednagar in Maharashtra as Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar in her memory.
    [UPSC 2009] With reference to Stree Shakti Puraskar, for which of the following is ‘Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Award’ given?

    Options: (a) Administrative skills (b) Achievements in Scientific Research (c) Achievements in Sports and Games (d) Courage and valour*

     

  • Birth Anniversary of Veer Savarkar

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister paid tributes to Veer Savarkar on his birth anniversary on May 28th.

    About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

    Details
    Who was Veer Savarkar? • Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra,
    • Founded the Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) with his brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar for armed resistance.
    • Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society.
    • Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
    • Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943).
    • Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death.
    His Contributions • Advocated armed revolution against British rule.
    • Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion.
    • Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity.
    • Championed military nationalism over passive resistance.
    • Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements.
    Literary Works • The First War of Indian Independence (1909):  Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle.
    • Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva.
    • My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail.
    • Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders.
    Controversies • Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence.
    • Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising.
    • Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favoured military strength over civil disobedience.
    • Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity.

     

    [UPSC 2008] During the Indian Freedom Struggle, who of the following raised an army called ‘Free Indian Legion’?

    Options: (a) Lala Hardayal (b) Rashbehari Bose (c) Subhas Chandra Bose * (d) V.D. Savarkar

     

  • Rewriting the Keezhadi (Keeladi) Excavations Report

    Why in the News?

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has asked to resubmit his excavation report on the Keeladi site near Madurai after making necessary corrections.

    ASI’s Concerns with the Report:

    • The ASI asked for better scientific justification for the period of 8th century BCE to 5th century BCE.
    • It said the earliest period could be more accurately dated to pre-300 BCE.
    • The ASI said that depth data alone was not enough — each scientific date should also mention the layer number to allow for stratigraphic consistency.

    About Keezhadi Excavations:

    • Location: Keezhadi is a village in Sivaganga district, located about 12 km southeast of Madurai, along the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu.
    • Excavations: Excavations began in 2014, led by archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna, to uncover urban signs from the Sangam Age.
    • Period Link: The site is associated with the Sangam period (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), and findings may push it back to 800 BCE.
    • Civilisation Context: Keezhadi is now seen as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation, with evidence of urbanisation, trade, and early literacy.

    Key Findings from Keezhadi:

    • Period: Charcoal samples dated to around 200 BCE; some artefacts range between the 6th century BCE and 1st century BCE using the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating.
    • Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions: Over 120 potsherds with early Tamil Brahmi script indicate literacy during the Sangam period.
    • Pottery and Craftsmanship: Discovery of pottery, gold ornaments, copper tools, shell bangles, and ivory combs show local industry and artistic skill.
    • Trade and Imports: Agate and carnelian beads suggest access to imported materials and long-distance trade.
    • Recreational Items: Dice and game pieces were found, indicating leisure activities in the society.
    • Industrial Activity: Evidence of dyeing units and bead-making points to a flourishing economy.
    • Cultural Continuity: Artefacts show a transition from the Iron Age to the Early Historic Period.
    • Possible Indus Link: Some symbols on potsherds resemble Indus Valley signs, hinting at cultural connections, despite a 1,000-year gap.
    [UPSC 2013] Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment.

    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following explains the practice of Vattakirutal’ as mentioned in Sangam poems?

    Options: (a) Kings employing women bodyguards (b) Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters (c) Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals (d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death*

     

  • INSV Kaundinya

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Navy has formally inducted a traditional stitched sail ship, named INSV Kaundinya, at a ceremony held at the Naval Base in Karwar.

    INSV Kaundinya

    About INSV Kaundinya:

    • Induction: It is a newly inducted, stitched sail ship of the Indian Navy, formally inducted at Karwar Naval Base.
    • Design: The ship is based on a 5th-century design shown in a painting from the Ajanta Caves.
    • Construction Method: Built using ancient Indian shipbuilding techniques, including coconut fibre stitching, wooden joinery, coir ropes, natural resins, and cotton sails.
    • No Modern Additions: It has no metal parts, no modern rudder, and is powered by square sails and steering oars.
    • Cultural Symbols: Features include the Gandabherunda (two-headed eagle of the Kadamba dynasty), a Simha Yali on the bow, and a Harappan-style stone anchor.
    • Sail Plan: The vessel has 3 masts — the main mast, mizzen mast, and bowsprit mast.
    • Planned Voyage: A 15-member Indian Navy crew will sail it to Oman by late 2025, retracing ancient maritime trade routes.
    • Project Partners: This heritage revival project is supported by the Ministry of Culture, Indian Navy, and Hodi Innovations Pvt. Ltd.

    Legend of Kaundinya and Queen Soma:

    • Kaundinya is regarded as the first known Indian sailor to cross the seas over 2,000 years ago.
    • He is credited with founding the kingdom of Funan (in present-day Cambodia and South Vietnam) through a historic alliance with Queen Soma.
    • Their story is recorded in Cambodian, Vietnamese, and Chinese sources, though not in Indian texts.
    • Future dynasties like the Khmer and Cham traced their origins to this union.
    [UPSC 2003] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Cholas defeated Pandya and Chera rulers and established their domination over peninsular India in the early medieval times.

    2. The Cholas sent an expedition against Sailendra empire of South East Asia and conquered some of the areas.

    Which of these statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/navy-inducts-stitched-sail-ship-as-insv-kaundinya/article69601911.ece

  • 253rd birth anniversary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy

    One of the most influential social and religious reformers of the 19th century, Ram Mohan Roy, born on May 22, 1772 in what was then Bengal Presidency’s Radhanagar in Hooghly district, would have turned 253 years today.

    Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)

    Early life

    • Born into a prosperous upper-caste Brahmin family, Roy grew up within the framework of orthodox caste practices of his time.
    • Child-marriage, polygamy and dowry were prevalent among the higher castes and he had himself been married more than once in his childhood.
    • The family’s affluence had also made the best in education accessible to him.
    • The waning of the Mughals and the ascendancy of the East India Company in Bengal towards the end of the 18th century was also the time when Roy was slowly coming into his own.

    Academics

    • Roy knew Bengali and Persian, but also Arabic, Sanskrit, and later, English.
    • His exposure to the literature and culture of each of these languages bred in him a scepticism towards religious dogmas and social strictures.
    • He spent considerable time studying the Vedas and the Upanishads, but also religious texts of Islam and Christianity.

    Religious belief

    • He was particularly intrigued by the Unitarian faction of Christianity and was drawn by the precepts of monotheism that, he believed, lay at the core of all religious texts.
    • He wrote extensive tracts on various matters of theology, polity and human rights, and translated and made accessible Sanskrit texts into Bengali.
    • Rammohun did not quite make a distinction between the religious and the secular. He believed religion to be the site of all fundamental changes.
    • What he fought was not religion but what he believed to be its perversion.

    Roy, the first among liberals

    • Even though British consolidation of power was still at a nascent stage in India at the time, Roy could sense that change was afoot.
    • Confident about the strength of his heritage and open to imbibing from other cultures what he believed were ameliorative practices, Roy was among India’s first liberals.
    • He was simultaneously interested in religion, politics, law and jurisprudence, commerce and agrarian enterprise, Constitutions and civic rights, the unjust treatment of women and the appalling condition of the Indian poor.

    Establishment of Atmiya Sabha

    • In 1814, he started the Atmiya Sabha (Society of Friends), to nurture philosophical discussions on the idea of monotheism in Vedanta.
    • It aimed to campaign against idolatry, casteism, child marriage and other social ills.
    • The Atmiya Sabha would make way for the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, set up with Debendranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore’s father.

    Abolition of Sati, educational and religious reforms

    • He campaigned for the modernisation of education, in particular the introduction of a Western curriculum, and started several educational institutions in the city.
    • In 1817, he collaborated with Scottish philanthropist David Hare to set up the Hindu College (now, Presidency University).
    • He followed it up with the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822 and, in 1830, assisted Alexander Duff to set up the General Assembly’s Institution, which later became the Scottish Church College.
    • It was his relentless advocacy alongside contemporaries such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar that finally led to the abolition of Sati under the governor generalship of William Bentinck in 1829.
    • Roy argued for the property rights of women, and petitioned the British for freedom of the press (in 1829 and 1830).
    • His Brahmo Sabha, that later became the Brahmo Samaj, evolved as a reaction against the upper-caste stranglehold on social customs and rituals.

    Perils of non-conformism

    • Roy, who was given the title of Raja by the Mughal emperor Akbar II, was no exception to the societal enmity.
    • Roy was also often attacked by his own countrymen who felt threatened by his reformist agenda, and by British reformers and functionaries, whose views differed from his.

    Conclusion

    • Roy’s work in the sphere of women’s emancipation, modernising education and seeking changes to religious orthodoxy finds new relevance in this time.
    • He was among the first Indians to gain recognition in the UK and in America for his radical thoughts.
    • Roy was unquestionably the first person on the subcontinent to seriously engage with the challenges posed by modernity to traditional social structures and ways of being.
    • Rabindranath Tagore called him a ‘Bharatpathik’ by which he meant to say that Rammohun combined in his person the underlying spirit of Indic civilisation, its spirit of pluralism, tolerance and a cosmic respect for all forms of life.

     

    UPSC 2023 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)

  • Shirui Lily Festival in Manipur

    Why in the News?

    The Shirui Lily Festival has commenced in Manipur after a two-year gap caused by the ongoing conflict in the state.

    About Shirui Lily Festival

    • Organiser: The festival is conducted by the Department of Tourism, Government of Manipur.
    • Launch: It was first held in 2017 and is now one of Manipur’s two major tourism festivals (the other being the Sangai Festival).
    • Origin: Named after the Shirui Lily (Lilium mackliniae), the State Flower of Manipur.
    • Location: The event is held in Ukhrul district, home to the Tangkhul Naga community.
    • Purpose: It aims to raise awareness about the Shirui Lily and promote eco-tourism in the hill regions of Ukhrul.
    • Key Activities: The festival includes cultural performances, music concerts, a beauty pageant, a cooking competition, and a trash collection marathon.

    About the Shirui Lily Flower:

    • Habitat: The Shirui Lily grows only in the upper reaches of the Shirui Hill range in Ukhrul district, at an altitude of 2,673 metres.
    • Local Name: It is locally known as ‘Kashong Timrawon’, named after a mythical hill guardian.
    • Discovery: British botanist Frank Kingdon-Ward identified it in 1946 and named it Lilium mackliniae after his wife Jean Macklin.
    • Conservation Status: Classified as Endangered by the IUCN. (It is not listed by CITES or Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Shirui National Park is named after it.
    • Threats: The flower faces threats from climate change, human encroachment, resource exploitation, and invasion by wild dwarf bamboo.

     

    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Tradition– State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • Restoration of Rajon ki Baoli

    Why in the News?

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.

    About Rajon ki Baoli:

    • Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
    • Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
    • Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
    • Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
    • Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
    • Architectural Features:
      • Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
      • The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
    • Purpose: Served as a water source and resting place and had social-religious utility.

    About the Lodi Dynasty:

    • The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
    • Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
    • Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
    • Key Rulers:
      1. Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
      2. Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
      3. Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.
    • Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.

    Tap to read more about Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India.

    [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?

    (a) Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi – Bahlol Khan Lodi

    (b) Sikandar Shah – Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi

    (c) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi*

    (d) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi – Sikandar Shah

    ASI completes conservation work in Lodhi-era stepwell – The Hindu

  • 50 years of Sikkim’s integration with India

    Why in the News? 

    May 16 is observed annually as Sikkim Day, marking the historic occasion in 1975 when the Kingdom of Sikkim formally became a state of India.

    About the Kingdom of Sikkim

    • Foundation: The Kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when three Tibetan lamas crowned Phuntsong Namgyal as the first Chogyal (monarch).
    • Namgyal dynasty: It ruled Sikkim for 333 years, maintaining a Buddhist monarchy until 1975.
    • Treaty of Tumlong (1861): It made Sikkim a British protectorate, where the Chogyals retained internal authority while the British handled external affairs.
    • Other key treaties shaping Sikkim’s status: These included the Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904), which defined borders and reaffirmed British influence.

    How did Sikkim join India?

    • Post-1947 Status: After India’s independence, Sikkim did not join India like other princely states, due to its unique British treaty status.
    • Nehru’s Approach: While Sardar Patel and B.N. Rau wanted Sikkim to accede, Jawaharlal Nehru opted for a Standstill Agreement to preserve the status quo.
    • Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950: This treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India managing defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
    • Role of Sikkim National Congress: Led by Kazi Dorji, the SNC became the key pro-democracy and pro-merger party.
    • 1973 Agreement: After widespread protests, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Government of India, and the Sikkimese parties.
    • Democratic Transition: In 1974, elections were held, and a new constitution reduced the monarch’s powers.
    • Referendum of 1975: In April 1975, over 97% of voters supported abolishing the monarchy and merging with India.
    • Merger with India: In May 1975, the 36th Constitutional Amendment was passed, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of India. It added Article 371F to provide special provisions for the state of Sikkim.

    Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution

    • Constitutional Origin: Added by the 36th Amendment Act (1975) when Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.
    • Objective: Protects Sikkim’s unique history, culture, and legal system during integration.
    • Legislative Assembly: Sikkim must have at least 30 MLAs, fewer than other states under Article 170.
    • Parliamentary Representation: Sikkim has 1 Lok Sabha and 1 Rajya Sabha seat, with the Assembly electing the MP.
    • Governor’s Role: Governor holds special responsibility for peace, equity, and development.
    • Pre-Merger Laws: Existing laws and judgments before 1975 remain valid unless changed by Parliament.
    • Presidential Powers: President can modify laws and extend central laws to Sikkim within two years post-merger.
    • Land and Job Rights: Only 1961-registered Sikkimese can own land or hold state government jobs.
    • Tax Exemption: Original Sikkimese were exempt from income tax.
    • Recent Controversy: The Finance Bill, 2023 expanded the term “Sikkimese”, raising concerns over erosion of indigenous rights.

     

    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation as full States of the Indian Union?

    Options:

    (a) Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh-Nagaland-Haryana

    (b) Nagaland-Haryana-Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh *

    (c) Sikkim-Haryana-Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh

    (d) Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh-Sikkim-Haryana

     

  • IAF spokesperson quotes Ramcharitmanas

    Why in the News?

    India’s briefing on Operation Sindoor was opened with lines from poet Ramdhari Singh Dinkar and concluded with a reference to the Ramcharitmanas (by Tulsidas) by the IAF spokesperson.

    About Tulsidas:

    • Tulsidas, born as Ram Bola Dubey, was a Brahmin poet-saint believed to have been born in Rajapur (present-day Banda district, Uttar Pradesh).
    • He composed the Ramcharitmanas on the banks of the Ganga in Varanasi.
    • Writing began on Ram Navami in 1574, and the composition was completed over the following years.
    • Tulsidas lived during the time of Emperor Akbar, and some sources suggest he had contact with Abdurrahim Khan-e-Khanan, son of Akbar’s general Bairam Khan.

    About the Ramcharitmanas:

    • Ramcharitmanas was written in the 16th century in the Awadhi dialect and is spoken across Lucknow, Prayagraj, and Ayodhya regions.
    • It is a retelling of Valmiki’s Ramayana in a vernacular language accessible to the common people.
    • It is divided into seven chapters (Kand), covering Lord Ram’s life from birth to his coronation.
    • It is referred to simply as “Ramayan” across the Hindi heartland.
    • It is regarded as the holiest text in the Indo-Gangetic region.
    • Geeta Press (Gorakhpur) has reportedly sold nearly 7 crore copies.
    [UPSC 2002] Who among the following was the first Bhakti saint to use Hindi for the propagation of his message?

    Options: (a) Dadu (b) Kabir (c) Ramananda* (d) Tulsidas