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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Endosymbiotic Theory and Symbiogenesis

    Why in the news?

    • The endosymbiotic theory suggests that tiny structures in cells called mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent bacteria.
    • A biologist named Lynn Margulis came up with the idea that cells merged with bacteria, challenging the usual belief that evolution happens mainly through genetic changes.

     What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?

    • The endosymbiotic theory proposes that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria engulfed by recipient cells.
    • American biologist Lynn Margulis introduced Symbiogenesis, challenging the Neo-Darwinist consensus on genetic mutations driving evolution.
    • Margulis’s Struggle:
    1. Margulis’s manuscript on symbiogenesis faced rejection by academic journals before finally being published in The Journal of Theoretical Biology in 1967.
    2. It took years for mitochondria and chloroplasts to be acknowledged as former free-living bacteria turned endosymbionts.

    Recent Discoveries and Endosymbiotic Theory

    • Recent papers published in Science and Cell have reignited interest in the endosymbiotic theory.
    • The focus is on nitrogen fixation, crucial for proteins and DNA in living organisms.
    • Despite abundant atmospheric nitrogen, plants lack the means to utilize it efficiently.
    • Legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules, aiding in ammonia production for plant use.

    Evolution of Nitroplast

    • Cyanobacterium UCYN-A was found in marine algae, establishing a symbiotic relationship.
    • Nitroplast, a new organelle, co-evolved with its host cell, satisfying criteria for organelle classification.
    • Nitroplast integrates into host cell function and architecture, imports host cell proteins, synchronizes growth, and is inherited during cell division.
    • Nearly half of nitroplast proteins are derived from the host cell.

    Nitrogen Cycle:


    The nitrogen cycle is a crucial biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation and circulation of nitrogen in various forms within ecosystems. It involves several key steps:

    1. Nitrogen Fixation: This is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3-) ions, which are forms of nitrogen that plants can utilize. Nitrogen fixation can occur through biological, atmospheric, and industrial processes. In biological nitrogen fixation, certain bacteria like Rhizobium spp. in the root nodules of leguminous plants or cyanobacteria convert N2 into ammonia.
    2. Ammonification: Ammonification is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds from dead organisms, feces, and other waste materials are converted into ammonia by decomposer organisms like bacteria and fungi during the decay process.
    3. Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. This process occurs in aerobic conditions and plays a crucial role in making nitrogen available to plants.
    4. Assimilation: Plants and other organisms take up ammonia, nitrate, or organic nitrogen compounds from the soil to use them in synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids, and other vital nitrogen-containing compounds.
    5. Denitrification: Denitrification is the process by which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) by denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic conditions. This step completes the cycle by returning nitrogen to the atmosphere, closing the loop.
    6. Ammonium Ionization: In soils and aquatic environments, ammonium ions (NH4+) may undergo ionization, converting to ammonia gas (NH3), which can volatilize and return to the atmosphere.

    Significance of the Nitroplasts

    • Agriculture: Nitroplasts offer potential solutions for reducing the harmful effects of industrial ammonia production.
    • Biotechnology: Biotechnological applications may include engineering host cells and nitroplasts for efficient nitrogen fixation in plants.

    PYQ:

    [2021] In case of which one of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the cycle?​

    (a) Carbon cycle

    (b) Nitrogen cycle

    (c) Phosphorus cycle

    (d) Sulphur cycle

  • Why are Indian spices facing the heat? | Explained

    Why in the News?

    Many have announced an investigation into possible contamination of spice mixes sold by top Indian brands like MDH and Everest Masalas.

    • Delhi-based think tank Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) in a recent note held, “With nearly $700 million worth of exports to critical markets at stake.”

    What is Ethylene Oxide (ETO)?

    • Ethylene oxide is a flammable, colorless gas at temperature above 51.3 F (10.7 C). When used directly in the gaseous form or in non-explosive gaseous mixtures with nitrogen or carbon dioxide, ETO serves as a disinfectant, fumigant, sterilizing agent, and insecticide.
    • ETO has also been reported to be produced from natural sources. In certain plants, ethylene (a natural plant growth regulator) is degraded to ethylene oxide. ETO ia also generated from water – logged soil, manure and sewage sludge.

    What are the health concerns?

    • ETO Usage and Contamination: ETO is a prohibited pesticide that is used as a sterilizing agent in the food industry, including spices.
    • Toxicity and Carcinogenicity: Residues of ETO can lead to the formation of toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as ethylene glycol. Long-term exposure to ethylene oxide is associated with various health risks, including cancers like lymphoma and leukemia.
    • Previous Incidents: Indian-made products, including cough syrups, have been linked to incidents where ethylene glycol contamination resulted in fatalities, particularly among children in countries like Cameroon, Gambia, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan.
    • Regulatory Response: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has banned the use of ETO and has flagged contamination issues in Indian spices in the past. A recent EFSA report highlighted carcinogenic chemicals found in numerous products linked to India.

    Which countries have flagged safety of Indian spices?

    • Hong Kong: Suspended the sale of three MDH spice blends and Everest fish curry masala due to high levels of ethylene oxide (ETO).
    • Singapore: Ordered a recall of Everest spice mix, stating that ethylene oxide makes the spices unfit for human consumption and poses a cancer risk.
    • United States: The FDA is aware of the reports and is gathering additional information about the situation.
    • Maldives: The Maldives FDA has suspended the sale of spices produced by Everest and MDH.
    • Australia: Food Standards of Australia and New Zealand is working with international counterparts to understand the issue and determine if further action is required.
    • Bangladesh: Gathering information on companies importing possibly contaminated products and plans to carry out examinations if necessary.

    What are the operational challenges faced by the Indian government?

    • Lack of Standardized Protocol System: India’s diverse food landscape, the lack of standardised monitoring and intentional food fraud may prevent manufacturers from efficiently tracing ingredients and assessing potential risks.
    • Lack of Database: Many companies struggle to trace ingredients, especially raw agricultural commodities, due to the lack of standardised recordkeeping and intentional food fraud. This prevents manufacturers from assessing potential risks, compromising the safety of the entire food supply chain.
    • Traceability is particularly challenging for small and medium sized businesses with limited resources.

    What steps is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) taking to improve the safety of spices?

    • Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA): The FSMA rules address both domestically produced and imported foods.
      • For example, the preventive controls rule requires food facilities, including those that manufacture spices, to conduct a hazard analysis, identify hazards reasonably likely to occur, and establish preventive controls for such hazards.
    • Spices Board and its Measures: The Spices Board announced mandatory testing of consignments shipped to Singapore and Hong Kong, and gathering technical details and analytical reports from relevant food and drug agencies.
    • Issuance of Guidelines: A circular dated April 30 contains guidelines to exporters on preventing ETO contamination, developed after discussions with the Indian spice industry.
      • Measures include voluntary testing of ETO during raw and final stages, storing ETO treated products separately, and incorporating critical control points in hazard analysis.

    Way forward:

    • Enhanced Regulatory Oversight: Strengthen regulatory bodies such as the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to ensure strict adherence to food safety standards and regulations. Implement regular inspections, audits, and enforcement actions to monitor compliance with safety guidelines.
    • Improved Traceability Systems: Develop and implement robust traceability systems across the food supply chain to track the origin and movement of ingredients and products. Utilize technology such as blockchain and RFID tagging to enhance transparency and accountability.

    Mains question for practice 

    Q Explain the health risks associated with ethylene oxide (ETO) contamination in spices.

    Mains PYQ

    Q Elaborate the policy taken by the Government of India to meet the challenges of the food processing sector. (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • A computer science conundrum that could transform healthcare

    Why in the News? 

    Indian Health Care system faces a new set of complex problems that seem to be harder to solve because of their inherent complexity and the constraints they threaten to impose on resources.

    Quick Problems versus Complex Problems in Health Care:

    • Healthcare is filled with complex problems. Consider scheduling in a hospital: assigning doctors and nurses to shifts, booking operating theatres for surgeries, and organizing patient appointments.
    • It is an intricate puzzle that requires considering various factors — staff availability, urgency of medical cases, etc. — and potential changes such as emergency cases and cancellations.
    • The Quick Problems vs Complex Problems in Health Care question is this: there can be a shortcut to solve ‘Complex Problems’ problems as quickly as ‘Quick Problems’ problems.
    • The implication is that if Quick Problems equals Complex Problems, we could quickly find the optimal solution to these scheduling problems, thus significantly improving patient care.

    Implications for the Healthcare System:

    • Impact on Antibiotic Resistance: Quick analysis of bacterial genomes and prediction of resistance patterns could lead to more effective antibiotic prescriptions, improving patient outcomes and combating antibiotic resistance.
    • Advancement in Cancer Treatment: Swift identification of the optimal treatment for individual cancer patients could save lives by effectively tackling the complexity of cancer mutations and treatment options.
    • Optimization of Insurance Decision-Making: Insurance companies grappling with ‘NP’ problems in determining premiums and packages could benefit from a shortcut provided by solving the P versus NP problem. This could lead to fairer and more accurate premiums and conditions for customers.
    • Better utilization of Government health sector funding: Efficiently solving complex problems could lead to better utilization of government spending on healthcare, minimizing leakage and contributing to achieving universal health coverage.
    • Resource Constraint Reduction and Improved Health Outcomes: By solving complex healthcare problems more efficiently, there is the potential to dramatically reduce resource constraints and improve health outcomes broadly.

    Way Forward: Governments can enact policies and regulations that promote the responsible use of technology in healthcare and incentivize the adoption of evidence-based practices. This includes establishing standards for data privacy and security, fostering transparency in algorithmic decision-making, and ensuring equitable access to healthcare services.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • Moon occulting the Antares (Jyeshtha)

    Why in the news?

    • The Bengaluru-based Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) captured the moon passing in front of Antares, a bright red star.
    • Moon occasionally occults bright stars such as Antares and planets as it orbits the Earth once a month.

    About Antares (Jyeshtha)

    • Antares is a red supergiant star also called ‘Alpha Scorpii,’ located in the constellation of Scorpius.
    • It is visible in the southern sky during the summer months in the northern hemisphere.
    • It is often referred to as the “heart of the scorpion” due to its location within the Scorpius constellation and its striking red color.
    • It is a massive star, with a diameter estimated to be around 700 times that of the Sun.
    • It has a relatively low surface temperature compared to other stars, which gives it its distinctive red color.
    • The distance to Antares from Earth is approximately 550 light-years, making it one of the closest red supergiant stars to our solar system.

    What is Occultation?

    • An occultation is a total or a partial cut-off of the light of a celestial body due to its passage behind another body.
    • The finest example of an occultation is the solar eclipse.
    • Strictly speaking, it is not an eclipse, but a lunar occultation of the sun.

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village, which was situated 5 km East of the point where he was standing. He had no instruments to find the direction, but he located the pole-star. The most convenient way now to reach his village is to walk in the _______.

    (a) Direction facing the pole-star

    (b) Direction opposite to the pole-star

    (c) Direction keeping the pole-star to his left

    (d) Direction keeping the pole-star to his right

  • Studies Suggest More Water Ice on Moon: ISRO 

    Why in the news?

    A study has revealed evidence for enhanced possibility of sub-surface water ice occurrence in the polar craters of the Moon, according to ISRO.

    Water Ice on Moon: ISRO’s Findings 

    • The research indicates that the amount of sub-surface ice within the first few meters is significantly greater, about 5-8x more, than that found on the lunar surface.
    • Moreover, the study reveals that the Northern Polar region harbors twice as much water ice as the southern polar region.
    • It highlights the necessity of drilling to access this ice for future missions and sustained human presence on the Moon.

    Origin of Water Ice:

    • The study validates the hypothesis that sub-surface water ice in lunar poles originated from out-gassing during volcanic activity in the Imbrian period.
    • It suggests that Lunar Mare Volcanism and preferential impact cratering govern the distribution of water ice on the Moon.

    Methodology:

    • The research team utilized seven instruments aboard the NASA robotic spacecraft Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), including radar, laser, optical, neutron spectrometer, ultra-violet spectrometer, and thermal radiometer. LRO hovers over Lunar South Pole.
    • These instruments provided crucial data to understand the origin and distribution of water ice on the lunar surface.

    Significance of the findings

    • Accurate knowledge of water ice distribution and depth is vital for identifying suitable landing and sampling sites for future lunar missions.
    • The study supports ISRO’s future plans for in-situ volatile exploration on the Moon, aligning with its broader lunar exploration objectives.

    PYQ:

    Q. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development? (2016)

  • Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) Project

    Why in the news?

    NASA has launched its Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) spacecraft that uses sunlight for propulsion from New Zealand into space.

    About Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) Project

    • The spacecraft is slated to orbit 1,000 kilometers above Earth, deploying an 80-square-meter solar sail approximately 25 minutes after liftoff.
    • It harnesses sunlight as a renewable propulsion source, marking a novel advancement in space exploration.
    • It uses a compact CubeSat, similar in size to an oven, which facilitates propulsion by capturing solar particle energy.
    • Operational Phases:
    • The initial flight phase spans two months and involves subsystems checkout and solar sail deployment.
    • A series of pointing maneuvers will showcase orbit raising and lowering, validating the effectiveness of sunlight pressure on the sail.

    The Technology Behind: Solar Sailing

    • Solar sails typically consist of lightweight, reflective materials such as Mylar or aluminized Kapton, which are deployed in space to capture sunlight.
    • The sail is often configured as a large, thin membrane with a large surface area to maximize the amount of sunlight it can intercept.
    • When sunlight reflects off a shiny solar sail, some of its momentum is transferred, giving the sail a small push.

    Solar sailing offers several advantages over traditional propulsion methods, including:

    1. Efficiency: Solar sailing does not require onboard fuel, making it a highly efficient and sustainable propulsion method for long-duration missions.
    2. Continuous thrust: Unlike chemical rockets, which provide brief bursts of acceleration, solar sails can provide continuous thrust as long as they are exposed to sunlight.
    3. Maneuverability: Solar sails can change their trajectory by adjusting the orientation of the sail relative to the direction of incoming sunlight. This allows for precise navigation and maneuvering in space.
    4. Interstellar travel: Solar sailing has the potential to enable interstellar missions by gradually accelerating spacecraft to very high velocities over time, allowing them to explore distant star systems.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

    (a) Electric plane tested by NASA

    (b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

    (c) Space observatory launched by China

    (d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

  • Unveiling the Link between Fairness Creams and Nephrotic Syndrome

    Why in the news?

    • Researchers from Kerala reported 15 cases of Membranous Nephropathy (MN) linked to the regular application of fairness creams.
    • These creams contained high levels of mercury, sometimes exceeding the safe limit by 10,000 times.

    Mercury Contamination in Hair Cream

    • Blood and urine screenings of affected individuals unveiled alarmingly high levels of mercury, a well-known toxic element.
    • The fairness creams contained mercury levels up to 10,000 times above the permissible limit of 1 ppm under Minamata Convention (2013).
    • Most cases were PLA2R (phospholipase A2 receptor) negative, indicating a different cause.
    • Cases of MN linked to Neural epidermal growth factor-like protein 1 (NELL-1) have been identified.
    • NELL-1 has been associated with MN caused by traditional medicines containing high mercury levels.

    Understanding Membranous Nephropathy

    • Membranous Nephropathy (MN) is a nephrotic syndrome, characterized by excessive protein leakage into urine, eventually leading to kidney failure. Symptoms such as fatigue, edema, and proteinuria were found to have a history of regular fairness cream usage.

    Impact of Mercury:

    • Mercury in fairness creams inhibits melanin formation, resulting in lighter skin. Consumers perceive higher mercury levels as more effective for skin whitening.
    • Mercury, a potent heavy metal found in these creams, penetrates the body through various channels, including sweat glands and hair follicles, causing systemic toxicity.
    • Chronic exposure to mercury can result in kidney damage, neurological disorders, and a myriad of other health complications.

    Back2Basics: Minamata Convention on Mercury

    • The Minamata Convention on Mercury is devised to safeguard human health and the environment from the detrimental impacts of mercury and its derivatives.
    • Its name derives from the Japanese bay where, during the mid-20th century, industrial wastewater tainted with mercury inflicted severe health damage upon thousands of individuals, leading to what is now recognized as “Minamata disease.”
    • Signed in 2013 and enforced in 2017, it operates as a United Nations treaty under the purview of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
    • Countries ratifying the Convention are legally obliged under international law to implement these regulations.
    • 128 countries are signatories, with 119 of them having ratified it; India became a party by ratifying it in 2018.

    Activities covered by the Convention:

    • The Convention encompasses all phases of the mercury life cycle, aiming to regulate and diminish mercury usage across various products, processes, and industries.
    • This encompasses regulations about:
      • Mercury mining involves bans on new mines and the gradual phase-out of existing ones.
      • Gradual reduction and elimination of mercury utilization in numerous products and procedures.
      • Control measures address emissions into the atmosphere and release into soil and water bodies.
      • Oversight of the informal artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector.
      • Management of interim mercury storage and its disposal once classified as waste, as well as remediation of mercury-contaminated sites and associated health issues.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] Indiscriminate disposal of used fluorescent electric lamps causes mercury pollution in the environment. Why is mercury used in the manufacture of these lamps?

    (a) A mercury coating on the inside of the lamp makes the light bright white

    (b) When the lamp is switched on, the mercury in the lamp causes the emission of ultra-violet radiations

    (c) When the lamp is switched on, it is the mercury which converts the ultra-violet energy into visible light

    (d) None of the statement given above is correct about the use of mercury in the manufacture of fluorescent lamps

  • 95Mat5 Antibody: Revolutionizing Snakebite Treatment

    Why in the news?

    After multiple rounds of screening, researchers have identified an antibody, 95Mat5 that showed promising results in making a potent antidote against various snake venoms.

    What is 95Mat5?

    • 95Mat5 is a universal antivenom developed to neutralize the toxins present in snake venoms.
    • Development Process:
    1. The scientists first synthesized variants of a toxin called long-chain 3FTxs (3FTx-L), which are found in the venoms of various snakes, including cobras, kraits, mambas, and monocled cobras.
    2. They then screened billions of human antibodies expressed on the surface of yeast cells to find antibodies that bound best to the synthesized toxins.
    3. After multiple rounds of screening, they identified a shortlist of antibodies that broadly reacted with most of the 3FTx variants used in the study.
    4. The selected antibodies were further tested in vitro in human cells to determine which ones could best neutralize the toxins.

    Mechanism of Action

    • 95Mat5 specifically targets α-neurotoxins, which are a specific class of 3FTxs that prevent nerve and muscle cells from responding to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in carrying messages from neurons to muscles.
    • By binding to the toxins, 95Mat5 prevents toxins from interacting with the receptors in human nerve and muscle cells, thereby blocking their ability to induce paralysis and other deadly effects.
    • In animal experiments, 95Mat5 demonstrated efficacy in neutralizing the toxins present in the venoms of various snake species, protecting the animals from death.

    Global Impact of Snakebites

    • Venomous snakebites claim over 100,000 lives annually, with around 400,000 individuals suffering permanent disability.
    • Low and middle-income countries, especially India and Africa, bear the brunt of this burden.
      • India alone witnessing an average of 58,000 deaths each year.
    • In 2017, the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared snakebite envenoming as a highest priority Neglected Tropical Disease, shedding light on a long-hidden health crisis.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements:

    1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
    2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of human body.
    3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
    4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Glycemic Index of Diets: Importance beyond Diabetes Control

    Why in the news?

    Understanding and managing Glycemic Index (GI) in diets is crucial for promoting long-term health and mitigating the risk of chronic diseases.

    What is Glycemic Index (GI)?

    • Prof. David Jenkins of the University of Toronto introduced Glycemic Index (GI) in 1981.
    • GI measures how quickly a food raises blood glucose levels compared to a reference food, typically glucose or white bread, which is assigned a value of 100.

    GI Classification and Glycemic Load (GL):

    • Multiplying GI by the amount of carbohydrate consumed gives the Glycemic Load (GL).
    • Accordingly, foods are classified as:
    1. Low GI (below 55): Brown rice, steel-cut oats, legumes (such as lentils and chickpeas), most fruits (like apples, berries, and oranges), vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
    2. Medium GI (56-69): Whole wheat products, such as whole wheat bread and pasta, some types of rice (like basmati rice), and certain fruits like pineapple and mango.
    3. High GI (70 or above): Refined carbohydrates and sugary foods such as white rice, white bread, refined flour products, potatoes, sweetened drinks (like soda), candies, cookies, and sugary snacks.

    Debate and Perspectives:

    • The Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study, spanning 20 countries including India, revealed the link between high GI diets and cardiovascular events and mortality.
    • Evidence supports the association between high GI diets and increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and mortality.

    Relevance to India

    • In South Asia, where diets are rich in high GI foods like white rice, efforts to reduce GI and GL are crucial.
    • Lowering GI and GL can help prevent not only diabetes but also premature cardiovascular disease, which is prevalent in India.

    PYQ:

    [2011] Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is recommended in the diet since they are a good source of antioxidants. How do antioxidants help a person maintain health and promote longevity?

    (a) They activate the enzymes necessary for vitamin synthesis in the body and help prevent vitamin deficiency

    (b) They prevent excessive oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the body and help avoid unnecessary wastage of energy

    (c) They neutralize the free radicals produced in the body during metabolism

    (d) They activate certain genes in the cells of the body and help delay the ageing process

  • Plasma Therapy to Treat Rodenticide Poisoning

    Why in the news?

    • A significant health concern in Tamil Nadu is found through ingestion of Rat poison containing Yellow Phosphorus, leading to liver toxicity.
      • Since December 2017, the team at CMC Vellore introduced Plasma Exchange, (a cost-effective treatment) for acute liver failure caused by rat poison ingestion.

    What is Plasma Therapy (Plasmapheresis)?

    • Plasma exchange, also known as plasmapheresis, is a medical procedure used to treat various conditions by removing and replacing plasma from the blood.
    • During Plasma Exchange, the patient’s blood is circulated through a machine that separates plasma from other blood components, such as red and white blood cells and platelets.

    Working procedure:

    • The plasma, which may contain harmful substances or antibodies, is discarded.
    • The remaining blood components are mixed with replacement plasma or a plasma substitute and returned to the patient’s bloodstream.

    Usage of Plasmapheresis:

    • In Autoimmune diseases: Conditions such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and certain forms of vasculitis.
    • In Neurological disorders: Conditions such as multiple sclerosis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, and certain types of encephalitis.
    • In Toxicological emergencies: Poisoning or overdose with substances such as drugs, chemicals, or toxins that can be removed from the bloodstream through plasma exchange.

    Benefits observed in TN’s Case

    • The treatment significantly improved survival rates, with 63.9% of patients treated in 2022-2023 successfully discharged.
    • Retrospective studies at CMC Vellore demonstrated promising outcomes, with survival rates of 75% among children and 80.2% among adults treated with plasma exchange.

    What is Plasma in Human Blood?

    • Human blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, constituting about 55% of its total volume.
    • It is a pale yellowish fluid that carries various substances throughout the body, including nutrients, hormones, electrolytes, antibodies, and waste products.
    • Plasma plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and transporting essential components to tissues and organs.

    Composition:

    • Water: Approximately 90% of plasma consists of water, making it the primary solvent for carrying dissolved substances.
    • Proteins: Plasma contains a variety of proteins, including albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. These proteins perform functions such as maintaining osmotic pressure, transporting lipids and hormones, and aiding in blood clotting.
    • Electrolytes: Plasma contains ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate, which help regulate fluid balance, pH, and nerve function.
    • Nutrients: Glucose, amino acids, lipids, and vitamins are transported in plasma and provide energy and building blocks for cells.
    • Waste Products: Metabolic waste products, such as urea, creatinine, and bilirubin, are transported in plasma to be eliminated from the body.
    • Hormones: Hormones produced by endocrine glands are carried in plasma to target tissues, where they regulate various physiological processes.
    • Gases: Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in plasma, primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.

    Functions:

    • Plasma carries nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products to and from cells throughout the body.
    • Plasma helps regulate fluid balance, electrolyte concentrations, pH, and temperature.
    • Antibodies and immune cells in plasma help defend against pathogens and foreign substances, contributing to the body’s immune response.
    • Plasma proteins such as fibrinogen play a crucial role in blood clotting, helping to stop bleeding and repair damaged blood vessels.
    • Plasma buffers changes in pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions, helping maintain the body’s acid-base balance.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] A married couple adopted a male child. A few years later, twin boys were born to them. The blood group of the couple is AB positive and 0 negative. The blood group of the three sons is A positive, B positive, and O positive. The blood group of the adopted son is-

    (a) O positive

    (b) A positive

    (c) B positive

    (d) Cannot be determined based on the given data