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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Ferroptosis Cases in Severe Covid Patients

    Why in the News?

    Columbia University study on COVID-19 fatalities found ferroptosis as the main cause of lung cell death, advancing understanding of lung disease development.

    What is Ferroptosis?

    • Ferroptosis is a type of regulated cell death characterized by the iron-dependent accumulation of lipid peroxides to lethal levels.

    Other forms of cell death: 

    1. Apoptosis (highly regulated process that occurs in multicellular organisms to eliminate unwanted or damaged cells without causing inflammation),
    2. Necrosis (cell death characterized by rapid and uncontrolled cell lysis, often accompanied by inflammation and tissue damage).
    3. Autophagy (involves the degradation and recycling of cellular components through lysosomal machinery).

    Mechanism of Ferroptosis:

    The precise molecular mechanism underlying ferroptosis is still being elucidated, but it involves the deregulation of iron metabolism and lipid peroxidation. Here’s a simplified overview of how ferroptosis occurs:

    1. Iron Accumulation: Ferroptosis is characterized by the accumulation of iron within cells, particularly in the form of labile iron pools. Excess iron can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through Fenton chemistry.
    2. Lipid Peroxidation: ROS generated from excess iron promotes lipid peroxidation, particularly of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within cell membranes. Lipid peroxides accumulate and propagate, leading to membrane damage and loss of membrane integrity.
    3. Glutathione Depletion: Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant that helps to neutralize ROS and prevent lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, there is a depletion of cellular GSH levels, which impairs the cell’s ability to counteract oxidative stress.
    4. GPX4 Inhibition: Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols, thereby protecting cells from lipid peroxidation. In ferroptosis, GPX4 activity is inhibited, leading to the accumulation of lipid peroxides and cell death.
    5. Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Ferroptosis is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, including alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential and morphology, as well as disruption of mitochondrial metabolism and bioenergetics.
    6. Cellular Consequences: The accumulation of lipid peroxides and mitochondrial dysfunction ultimately leads to cellular damage, loss of cell membrane integrity, and cell death by ferroptosis.

    Significance of the Study

    • Targeting and preventing ferroptosis could offer novel treatment avenues for COVID-19 lung disease and its possible future mutations.
    • Inhibiting this form of cell death may help improve the treatment outcomes for severe cases of COVID-19.

    PYQ:

    [2020] COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.

  • Xenotransplantation: Prospects and Challenges

    Why in the News?

    The recent passing away of Richard Slayman, the first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant, has drawn attention to xenotransplantation—an innovative medical procedure with the potential to revolutionise organ transplantation.

    What is Xenotransplantation?

    • It involves transplanting live cells, tissues, or organs from nonhuman animal sources into human recipients.
    • It seeks to address the critical gap between organ demand and supply.
    • Xenotransplantation, pioneered in the 1980s with heart transplants, has emerged as a promising solution to alleviate the organ shortage crisis, particularly prevalent in kidney transplantation.

    Examples:

    • Chimpanzee-to-Human Transplants: In the 1960s, there were attempts at chimpanzee-to-human kidney transplants, heart transplants, and liver transplants.
    • Pig-to-Human Heart Transplant: In 2022, a groundbreaking milestone was achieved with the first successful transplantation of a pig heart into a human with end-stage heart disease

    Procedural Details

    • Xenotransplantation involves genetic modifications to animal organs, like 69 CRISPR-Cas9 edits to a pig kidney, removing pig genes and adding human genes for compatibility.

    Why is the Pig a Preferred Source?

    • Anatomical Resemblance: Pigs are favoured for xenotransplantation due to their physiological similarities to humans, facilitating successful integration. Pig organs, like heart valves, have been used in human medicine for over 50 years.
    • Breeding Advantages: Extensive pig farming ensures a readily available and cost-effective supply of organs, with diverse breeds offering size-matching opportunities.

    Challenges associated

    • The main challenge is preventing organ rejection. Innovative methods, such as embedding the pig’s thymus gland under the kidney’s outer layer, help manage immune responses.
    • There are also significant concerns regarding potential infections from both recognised and unrecognised infectious agents that could affect not only the recipient but also the wider population.
    • Retroviruses present in the animal organs pose a risk of cross-species infection, which could remain latent and cause diseases years after the transplantation.

    PYQ: 

    [2017] With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of ‘genome sequencing’, often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future?

    1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.
    2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.
    3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • EU activated Copernicus EMS to Locate Crashed Iranian Helicopter

    Why in the News?

    • In response to the helicopter crash involving Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, the European Union had activated its Copernicus Emergency Management Service (EMS) to aid in search and rescue efforts.

    About the Copernicus Programme

    • This Programme was launched in 1998 by the European Union’s earth observation
    • Named for Copernicus, it uses satellites and ground systems for environmental data.
    • It is implemented by EU member states with support from entities like the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Environment Agency (EEA).

    Utility of GMES: Rapid Response Mapping Service

    • The Copernicus EMS offers rapid response mapping, a crucial component activated during emergencies like natural disasters or accidents.

    How Rapid Mapping Works?

    • Rapid mapping involves acquiring, processing, and analyzing satellite images and relevant data to provide timely information.
    • It offers several products, including pre-event reference and post-event assessments like first estimates, delineation, and grading of the impacted area.

    Application in the Iranian President’s Case

    • In the case of the Iranian President’s helicopter crash, the EU activated the rapid response mapping service to aid search and rescue operations.
    • This technology helps locate the crash site and assess the extent of the impact, facilitating swift response efforts.

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:

    1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
    2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
    3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2021.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) None

  • PM WANI Wi-Fi Scheme: All you need to know

    Why in the News?

    • Under the PM-WANI scheme, India witnesses a swift rise in public Wi-Fi hotspots, reaching approximately 1,99,896 hotspots nationwide, according to government data.

    What is the PM WANI Initiative?

    • PM Modi launched the Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface (PM WANI) in December 2020.
    • It is an initiative under the Department of Telecommunications (DoT).
    • It takes forward the goal of the National Digital Communications Policy, 2018 (NDCP) of creating a robust digital communications infrastructure.
      • Objective: To democratize internet access, particularly in remote and underserved areas.
      • Implementation: Leverages Public Data Offices (PDOs) established in public spaces like railway stations, banks, post offices, and more. Users can access the internet via Wi-Fi at these locations without requiring a SIM card.

    PM-WANI ecosystem consists of four parts: 

    1. Public Data Office (PDO): It establishes the Wi-Fi Hotspots and provides internet access to users
    2. Public Data Office Aggregator (PDOA):  It provides authorisation and accounting services to PDOs.
    3. App Provider: It displays the available hotspots in the phone’s proximity.
    4. Central Registry: This overseen by the Centre for Development of Telematics maintains details of App Providers, PDOs, and PDOAs.

    How to Utilize PM WANI?

    • To access PM WANI services, users must install the Data PM WANI app on their smartphones.
    • Through the app, users can connect to nearby public Wi-Fi PDOs.
    • This application facilitates seamless connectivity to PM-WANI-compliant Wi-Fi hotspots, empowering users to access broadband services conveniently.

    Data Plans Offered

    PM WANI offers various data plans to suit different usage needs:

    • Rs 6 plan: 1GB data for 1 day
    • Rs 9 plan: 2GB data for 2 days
    • Rs 18 plan: 5GB data for 3 days
    • Rs 25 plan: 20GB data for 7 days
    • Rs 49 plan: 40GB data for 14 days
    • Rs 99 plan: 100GB data for 30 days

    Role of Public Data Offices (PDOs)

    • The PM-WANI scheme includes a provision for establishing Public Data Offices (PDOs) by rural entrepreneurs in remote regions.
    • These PDOs procure internet bandwidth from telecom service providers or ISPs to offer Wi-Fi services at minimal charges.
    • This model enables individuals to access the internet even in areas with limited or no data connectivity.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following is/are the aim/aims of “Digital India” Plan of the Government of India?

    1. Formation of India’s own Internet companies like China did.
    2. Establish a policy framework to encourage overseas multinational corporations that collect Big Data to build their large data centres within our national geographical boundaries.
    3. Connect many of our villages to the Internet and bring Wi-Fi to many of our school, public places and major tourists.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Spotlighting Pre-eclampsia, ensuring safe motherhood

    Why in the News?

    The prevalence of Congenital Anomalies and Neurological Challenges in newborns highlights the need for adequate Antenatal and Perinatal care to address them.

    Key observations made by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5):

    Perinatal mortality rates stand at 32 for 1,000 pregnancies, neonatal mortality rates at 25 for 1,000 live births, and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy remain a leading cause of maternal death.

    • Cause of Maternal and Perinatal Mortality: Preeclampsia (PE) is a significant cause of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality, with early onset PE posing higher risks.  
    • Combination of Maternal factors and Biomarkers: Screening based on maternal risk factors alone has suboptimal performance, while a combination of maternal factors and biomarkers like mean arterial pressure, uterine artery pulsatility index, and serum placental growth factor can improve detection rates significantly.
    • Early Intervention with Aspirin Prophylaxis: First-trimester screening models, like the FMF prediction algorithm, have been effective in identifying high-risk pregnancies for preterm PE, allowing for early intervention with aspirin prophylaxis to reduce the incidence of preeclampsia.

    What is Pre-eclampsia?

    • Preeclampsia is a complication of pregnancy. Preeclampsia, high blood pressure, and high levels of protein in urine indicate kidney damage (proteinuria), or other signs of organ damage. 
    • Preeclampsia usually begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy in women whose blood pressure had previously been in the standard range.

     

    Challenges to cure Pre-eclampsia (PE):

    • Complex Screening Protocols: Effective screening requires a combination of maternal history, demographics, color Doppler ultrasound, mean arterial pressure, and placental biomarkers, which may not be uniformly available or implemented.
    • Limited Resources: Not all healthcare facilities have access to advanced screening tools and technologies like color Doppler ultrasound and placental biomarker testing.
    • Lack of Awareness: Pregnant women may not be aware of the symptoms and risks associated with pre-eclampsia, leading to delayed presentation and diagnosis.
    • Delayed Intervention: Identifying high-risk pregnancies early is crucial, but delays in screening and diagnosis can lead to missed opportunities for timely intervention.
    • Pharmacological Challenges: Ensuring timely pharmacological intervention, such as aspirin prophylaxis, requires adherence to established protocols, which may only sometimes be followed.
    • Logistical Issues: Implementing widespread screening and management protocols involves logistical challenges, including training healthcare providers and ensuring the availability of necessary equipment.
    • Complexity of the Disorder: The systemic nature of pre-eclampsia, affecting multiple organs, complicates its management and requires a multidisciplinary approach.

    Programs in India:

    • “Samrakshan” program: The Indian Radiological and Imaging Association’s (IRIA) “Samrakshan” program aims to reduce pre-eclampsia from 8%-10% to 3% and fetal growth restriction from 25%-30% to 10% by the end of the decade.
    • The program focuses on spreading awareness, screening for pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction, and ensuring comprehensive care throughout pregnancy.

    Way Forward: 

    • Early Detection and Management: Early detection through regular prenatal care, including blood pressure monitoring and urine testing for protein, is crucial in managing pre-eclampsia.
      • Timely intervention can help prevent severe complications and ensure the well-being of both mother and baby.
    • Promoting Awareness and Education: Raising awareness about the signs and symptoms of pre-eclampsia among pregnant women is essential for early recognition and prompt action.
      • Education on risk factors, preventive measures, and the importance of regular antenatal check-ups can significantly impact maternal and neonatal outcomes.
    • Ensuring Access to Quality Maternal Healthcare: Access to quality maternal healthcare services, including skilled antenatal care, monitoring, and timely interventions, is vital in addressing pre-eclampsia and reducing maternal mortality rates.
      • Empowering healthcare providers with the knowledge and resources to manage pre-eclampsia effectively is key to ensuring safe motherhood.
    • Collaborative Efforts for Maternal Health: Collaboration between governments, healthcare institutions, non-profit organisations, and the private sector is essential in implementing comprehensive maternal health programs that prioritise the prevention, early detection, and management of pre-eclampsia.

    Conclusion: By spotlighting pre-eclampsia and emphasising the importance of early detection, awareness, access to quality care, and collaborative efforts, we can strive towards ensuring safe motherhood for all women, safeguarding the health and well-being of mothers and their babies.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Identify the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that are related to health.Discuss the success of the actions taken by the Government for achieving the same.(UPSC IAS/2013)

     

  • Naegleria fowleri: the Brain-eating Amoeba

    Why in the news?

    • A five-year-old girl in Kozhikode, Kerala has succumbed to primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), caused by Naegleria fowleri.
      • India has recorded 20 reported cases of PAM, with the recent case marking the seventh infection in Kerala.

    What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?

    • PAM is a rare brain infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba found in warm freshwater and soil worldwide.
      • An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
      • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
    • The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
    • PAM is also non-communicable.
    • Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma.
      • According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.

    Treatment Challenges

    • Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
    • Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.

  • X chromosome revival in older Women increases Autoimmune Disease risk

    Why in the News?

    The X chromosome influences biological functions and disease susceptibilities, affecting genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and Alzheimer’s, with research offering potential new treatments and therapies.

    Back2Basics: Chromosomes

    • Chromosomes are fundamental components of cells that play a vital role in storing and transmitting genetic information.
    • These structures contain genes, which carry instructions for the development, functioning, and inheritance of traits.
    • Chromosomes consist of tightly coiled DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones, forming chromatin.
    • Before cell division, chromosomes replicate into identical sister chromatids held together at the centromere.

    Types of Chromosomes:

    1. Autosomes: Non-sex chromosomes (22 pairs in humans) determine most traits.
    2. Sex Chromosomes: Determine biological sex (XX for females, XY for males).

    Functions of Chromosomes

    • Genetic Information Storage: Genes on chromosomes encode instructions for protein production and cellular processes.
    • Inheritance: Chromosomes transmit genetic information during sexual reproduction through meiosis, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
    • Gene Expression Regulation: Chromosomes control gene activation or silencing, crucial for development and cell functioning.

    Genetic Landscape of the X chromosome:

    • The human X chromosome encodes around 800 genes, producing proteins.
    • Loss of function in these genes can lead to various genetic diseases.
    • Diseases influenced by the X chromosome fall into three categories:
    1. X-linked genetic diseases
    2. Diseases influenced by XCI (X chromosome inactivation) escape
    3. Diseases linked to X-chromosome aneuploidy

    What is the X chromosome?

    • It is one of the two sex chromosomes in humans, the other being the Y chromosome.
    • Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
    • Significance:
      • Encodes around 800 genes that are crucial for various biological processes.
      • Plays a significant role in determining sex and influencing many physiological functions.
      • Loss of function or mutations in X chromosome genes can lead to several genetic disorders.

    What are Autoimmune Diseases?

    • Diseases where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells and tissues.
    • Normally, the immune system defends against infections by targeting harmful pathogens.
    • Common Autoimmune Diseases:
      • Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): Chronic inflammation affecting various body parts.
      • Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Inflammation of joints and surrounding tissues.
      • Sjogren’s Syndrome: Affects glands that produce moisture, leading to dry mouth and eyes.

    How does the X chromosome cause Autoimmune Diseases?

    • X Chromosome Inactivation (XCI):
      • In females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development to balance gene expression between males and females.
      • This process is crucial to prevent overexpression of X-linked genes.
    • XCI Escape:
      • Not all genes on the inactive X chromosome are completely silenced.
      • Up to a fourth of these genes may escape inactivation and continue to be expressed.
    • Link to Autoimmune Diseases:
      • Skewed XCI: Uneven inactivation of X chromosomes may lead to an imbalance in gene expression, contributing to autoimmune disorders.
      • Incomplete XCI: Reactivation of genes that should be silenced can result in abnormal immune responses.

    Studies, such as one published in Science Advances (May 3, 2023), have shown that reactivation of X-linked genes in immune cells can lead to lupus-like symptoms in mice.

    Linkage between X chromosome and Alzheimer’s disease

    • Sex Bias in Alzheimer’s:
      • Women are almost twice as likely as men to develop Alzheimer’s disease.
    • Role of X-Linked Genes:
      • Researchers have identified a gene called ubiquitin-specific peptidase 11 (USP11) on the X chromosome.
      • USP11 Gene: Involved in protein modification processes and thought to influence the accumulation of tau proteins in the brain.
      • XCI Escape: USP11 may escape XCI in females, leading to higher expression levels and contributing to Alzheimer’s pathology.
      • A study from Case Western Reserve University (Cell, October 2022) highlighted this mechanism, suggesting it as a target for new treatments.

    PYQ:

    [2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?

    1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
    2. It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
    3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • IFPMA Report on Antimicrobial Resistance

    Why in the news?

    The International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations (IFPMA) released a report titled “From Resistance to Resilience: Reinforcing the Response to Antimicrobial Resistance,” emphasizing the urgent need for enhanced Antibiotic development.

    Report Highlights: Current State of Antibiotic Development:

    • Weak Pipeline: The current pipeline for developing new antibiotics is described as weak, fragile, and insufficient against growing antimicrobial resistance.
    • AMR Threat: Recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the greatest global health threats, AMR is linked to around 1.2 million direct deaths and 5 million associated deaths annually.

    What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?

    • Antimicrobials are substances designed to eliminate or suppress the growth of microorganisms.
    • This category encompasses antibiotics, fungicides, antiviral drugs, and agents targeting parasites.
    • AMR occurs when microbes such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi become resistant to antimicrobial treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
    • Microorganisms that develop resistance to antimicrobials are sometimes referred to as “superbugs”.

    Global Status of AMR

    A recent report from the Global Research on Anti-microbial Resistance (GRAM) project found that:

    • In 2019, an estimated 4.95 million people suffered from at least one drug-resistant infection and AMR directly caused 1.27 million deaths.
    • AMR is one of India’s major public health problems, directly contributing to about 30% of deaths due to neonatal sepsis across India.
    • These are due to multidrug-resistant (MDR) hospital-acquired infections in many cases.
    • 30% of the COVID-19 deaths in India could be attributed to our failure to treat the secondary bacterial infections caused by MDR pathogens with the appropriate antibiotics.

    What are the factors that cause AMR? 

    • Over-prescription of Antibiotics: Frequently prescribing antibiotics for conditions that do not require them, such as viral infections, accelerates the emergence of resistance.
    • Incomplete Treatment Courses: Patients not completing their antibiotic courses as prescribed can leave surviving bacteria that adapt to become resistant.
    • Self-Medication: Individuals using antibiotics without a prescription, especially in regions where they are available over the counter, increases misuse and drives resistance.
    • Lack of New Antibiotics: The slow pace of new antibiotic development fails to keep up with the rate of bacterial evolution, reducing effective treatment options.
    • Hospital Settings: Hospitals are critical hotspots for the spread of resistant infections due to the high use of antibiotics and the concentration of vulnerable patients with open wounds, invasive devices, and weakened immune systems.
    • Global Travel: International travel allows for the rapid spread of resistant mutant strains between communities and across borders.

    India’s efforts to combat AMR:

    Description
    National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR)
    • Launched in 2017, this 5-year plan involves multiple ministries to tackle AMR across human, animal, and environmental sectors.
    • Focuses on enhancing awareness, surveillance, infection prevention, optimizing antimicrobial use, promoting research, and fostering international collaborations.
    New Delhi Declaration on AMR
    • Adopted in 2023 at the G20 Summit.
    • It emphasizes strengthening surveillance, regulating antibiotic sales, and boosting research for new treatments and diagnostics in the South-East Asia Region.
    National Anti-Microbial Resistance Research and Surveillance Network
    • Established under the Indian Council of Medical Research to monitor AMR trends through a network of laboratories across India.
    National Programme on Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance
    • Initiated by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare to enhance AMR surveillance, infection control, and antimicrobial stewardship in healthcare facilities.
    Red Line Campaign
    • Started in 2016, it raises awareness about the irrational use of antibiotics.
    • Medicines marked with a red line on their packaging are prescription-only, aiming to reduce misuse and over-the-counter sales.
    National One Health Program for Prevention and Control of Zoonoses
    • Launched in 2019, this program uses a multi-sectoral approach to strengthen responses to zoonotic diseases, including those caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

  • Understanding Water Loss on Venus

    Why in the News?

    Over four billion years ago, Venus had enough water to potentially cover its surface with an ocean approximately 3 km deep, but today, it would remain with only 3 cm.

    • A research by US scientists explain the Non-Thermal Dissociative Recombination (DR) responsible for faster loss of water from Venus.

    About Venus

    • Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet and is the closest in mass and size to its orbital neighbour Earth.
    • Venus is notable for having the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial planets, composed mostly of carbon dioxide with a thick, global sulphuric acid cloud cover.
    • At the surface it has a mean temperature of 464 °C (737 K) and a pressure of 92 times that of Earth’s at sea level.
    • These extreme conditions compress carbon dioxide into a supercritical state close to Venus’s surface.
    • Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weak induced magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind.
    • Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System (the other being Mercury), that have no moons.
    • The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the currents and drag of its atmosphere.
    • It takes 224.7 Earth days for Venus to complete an orbit around the Sun, and a Venusian solar year is just under two Venusian days long.

    Water Loss on Venus:

    • Venus lost its water primarily due to two factors:
        • Evaporation due to Greenhouse Effect: Its dense atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, creating a strong greenhouse effect and surface temperatures around 450 degrees Celsius, which prevents water from existing in liquid form.
        • Proximity to the Sun: This leads to the disintegration of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen in the ionosphere under solar heat and ultraviolet radiation.
    • Mechanism of Water Loss:
    1. Thermal Process: Initially, hydrodynamic escape was significant, where solar heating caused the outer atmosphere to expand, allowing hydrogen to escape into space. This process cooled and slowed about 2.5 billion years ago.
    2. Non-Thermal Process: Focus of recent study; involves hydrogen escaping into space, reducing water formation as oxygen atoms lack hydrogen to bond with.

    Key Research Findings: Non-thermal Dissociative Recombination (DR)

    The discrepancy in water loss rates was addressed by identifying a previously overlooked chemical reaction involving the formyl cation (HCO+).

    • HCO+ dissociative recombination (DR) reaction occurs when HCO+ gains an electron and splits into CO and a hydrogen atom, which then escapes into space.
    • This reaction is responsible for losing out water without evaporation.
    • This reaction was modelled to significantly increase the rate of hydrogen escape, potentially doubling the rate at which Venus lost water.
    • The model suggests that water levels on Venus would have been stable from nearly 2 billion years ago due to the ongoing non-thermal HCO+ DR reaction, yet some water remains today.

    Future Research on Venus

    • Existence of HCO+ Ions: Direct evidence of HCO+ ions in Venus’s atmosphere is still missing. Past missions did not focus on this molecule, and its involvement in water loss was not previously considered crucial.
    • Future Missions: The findings underscore the importance of future Venus missions to investigate the presence of HCO+ in the upper atmosphere, similar to the MAVEN mission to Mars.

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are made of ice, dust and rocky material.
    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Do no harm: conservative, non-surgical approaches advised over hysterectomy for gynecological conditions

    Why in the News?

    According to the recent report published in Women’s Reproductive Health under the title ‘Reported Reasons for Undergoing Hysterectomy Among Women Aged 45 Years and Above‘, it was seen that data is lacking on women’s health conditions; thus the true magnitude is never known, impeding funding and escaping the attention of policymakers.

    What is Hysterectomy?

    • A hysterectomy is surgery to remove the uterus. After a hysterectomy, you will not menstruate (have periods) or be able to get pregnant.
    • Uterus removal is a common treatment for a variety of conditions that affect a woman’s reproductive organs.

    Key highlights of the Report:

    Reasons for Undertaking Hysterectomy:

    • Medical Conditions: Common medical reasons such as fibroids, excessive bleeding, prolapse, endometriosis, and cancer.
    • Socioeconomic Factors: Influence of sociodemographic factors like age, education, income, and access to healthcare services.
    • Cultural and Regional Differences: Variations in hysterectomy rates and reasons across different regions and cultural contexts within India.

    Frequency of Hysterectomy:

    • Global Context: Hysterectomy is one of the most frequently performed surgeries among women worldwide.
    • Prevalence in India: The countrywide hysterectomy prevalence rate is 11.5%. The highest prevalence is reported in the southern (18.2%) and western (12.7%) regions of India.
      • According to the NFHS-5 (2019-2021), 3.3% of women aged 15–49 underwent hysterectomy, a slight increase from 3.2% in NFHS-4. Alarmingly, 50% of women who underwent hysterectomy did so before the age of 35.
    • Regional Variations: Andhra Pradesh has the highest prevalence rate at 63 per 1,000 women, followed by Telangana (55 per 1,000), Karnataka (29 per 1,000), and Punjab (23 per 1,000).
    • Sociodemographic Factors: Higher risk of hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.

    Most Cited Reasons for Hysterectomy:

    • Primary Reasons: 
        • Heavy Menstrual Bleeding or Pain: Cited by 32.1% of women as the reason for undergoing hysterectomy.
        • Fibroids or Cysts: Cited by 24.2% of women as the reason for the surgery.
        • Uterine Prolapse: Cited by 16.3% of women.
    • Less Frequently Reported Reasons:
        • Cancer: Among the least reported reasons for undergoing a hysterectomy.
        • Severe Post-Partum Hemorrhage is also among the least reported reasons.
    • Sociodemographic Factors: 
      • Higher risk of undergoing hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.

    What are the Ministerial guidelines?

    • Hysterectomy is a major surgery with a long recovery time and should be considered only after less invasive treatments have been tried.
    • The government emphasizes on attempting nonsurgical alternatives in elective cases before opting for a hysterectomy.

    Way Forward:

    • Healthcare Providers: Train healthcare providers about the potential overuse of hysterectomy and emphasize the importance of considering nonsurgical alternatives.
    • Public Awareness: Launch awareness campaigns to educate women about gynecological health, the implications of hysterectomy, and available alternatives.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)