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Subject: Science and Technology

  • NIPGR’s gene-edited Japonica Rice shows increased Phosphate uptake

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at the National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), Delhi, have successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to enhance phosphate uptake and utilization in japonica rice.

    Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing

    • What It Is: A powerful gene-editing tool that allows targeted changes to DNA sequences.
    • Full Form: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
    • Nobel Prize: Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery.
    • Key Components:
      • Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors to cut DNA at a specific location.
      • Guide RNA (gRNA): Directs Cas9 to the exact DNA sequence to be edited.
    • How It Works?
      • A gRNA is designed to match the target DNA.
      • Cas9 and gRNA form a complex inside the cell.
      • The complex binds to the target and cuts the DNA.
      • The cell’s repair system modifies the DNA—adding, deleting, or changing genetic material.

    About Japonica Rice:

    • Overview: Japonica is one of the two major cultivated rice subspecies, the other being Indica.
    • Research Use: The Nipponbare variety of Japonica was used in recent gene-editing experiments.
    • Why Japonica is Preferred in Studies:
      • High regeneration potential in tissue culture
      • Easier genetic transformation and faster growth in lab conditions
    • Relevance to India: While not widely cultivated in India, Japonica acts as a model variety for testing before applying results to Indian Indica varieties.

    Key Features of the Japonica Rice Study:

    • Gene Editing Technique: Used CRISPR-Cas9 to edit a 30 base-pair repressor binding site on the promoter of the OsPHO1;2 gene.
    • Outcomes of the Edit:
      • Enhanced phosphate uptake from the soil
      • Improved phosphate transport from root to shoot
      • Yield increased by up to 40% using only 10% of the usual phosphate fertilizer
      • Normal seed traits retained: size, shape, starch, and phosphate levels
    • Significance: Demonstrated precise, minimal gene editing as a proof-of-concept that can be adapted to Indian rice varieties.
    [UPSC 2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:

    1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.

    2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.

    3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only * (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Mysterious Antimatter Physics discovered at CERN Large Hadron Collider

    Why in the News?

    CERN scientists have detected a tiny but significant difference in how matter and antimatter versions of baryons behave — offering clues to why matter dominates the universe, despite both being created equally after the Big Bang.

    What is CERN’s LHCb Experiment?

    • Location: At the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva, on the France–Switzerland border.
    • Name: LHCb = Large Hadron Collider beauty; focuses on beauty (bottom) quarks.
    • Started: Built in early 2000s; began collecting data in 2009.
    • Purpose: Studies particle decay, especially of beauty quark-containing particles, to test the Standard Model and search for small anomalies.

    Matter vs Antimatter – The Big Puzzle:

    • Matter: Everything around us is made of it.
    • Antimatter: Mirror image of matter, with opposite charges.
    • Big Bang Theory: Both should have been produced equally — and destroyed each other.
    • But…: Only matter remains — a mystery science is still trying to solve.
    • CP Symmetry: Physics expects matter and antimatter to behave identically (Charge-Parity symmetry).
    • CP Violation: When this symmetry breaks — possibly explaining why matter survived.

    What did Scientists Discover?

    • Focus: Lambda-b baryons and their antimatter versions.
    • Finding: A small but clear CP violation — they decayed differently.
    • Significance: First such discovery in baryons (previously seen only in mesons).
    • Certainty: Highly reliable — only 1 in 3.5 million chance it’s random.

    Why is this Important?

    • Helps explain why the universe is made of matter.
    • Expands discovery of CP violation to heavier particles.
    • Could hint at physics beyond the Standard Model.
    • Moves us closer to solving one of the universe’s biggest mysteries.
    [UPSC 2013] The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson particle have become frequent news in the recent past. What is/are the importance/importances of discovering this particle?

    1. It will enable us to under-stand as to why elementary particles have mass. 2. It will enable us in the near future to develop the technology of transferring matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them. 3. It will enable us to create better fuels for nuclear fission.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] Breakthrough in Quantum Noise Research

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) found that quantum noise—usually seen as a problem—can sometimes help connect particles in a special way called entanglement, which is important for future quantum technologies.

    What is Quantum Noise?

    • Overview: Quantum noise refers to random disturbances that affect quantum systems, often causing loss of coherence or decoherence.
    • Traditional View: It is typically seen as harmful, especially for quantum entanglement, which is crucial for quantum computing and communication.
    • Entanglement Concept: It is a phenomenon where particles are so correlated that the state of one instantly affects the state of another, even at a distance.
    • Effect of Decoherence: Noise-induced decoherence breaks this entanglement, thereby reducing the efficiency of quantum technologies.

    Key Findings:

    • Observation: Found that quantum noise can generate or revive entanglement, contrary to its typical reputation as destructive.
    • Focus Area: Studied intraparticle entanglement, which involves internal properties (like spin and path) of a single particle.
    • Contrast with Interparticle Entanglement: Unlike interparticle entanglement (between separate particles), intraparticle entanglement showed resilience under noise.
    • Types of Noise Studied:
      • Amplitude Damping: Energy loss
      • Phase Damping: Loss of phase information
      • Depolarizing Noise: Random changes in quantum state
    • Major Observation: Under amplitude damping, intraparticle entanglement showed delayed decay, revival, and even creation from unentangled states.
    • Interparticle Comparison: In contrast, interparticle entanglement exhibited steady decay with no revival or generation.

    Scientific Implications:

    • New Perspective: Challenges the assumption that quantum noise is purely harmful, showing it can be a resource in certain contexts.
    • Technological Potential: Intraparticle entanglement is more noise-resilient, making it valuable for stable quantum devices.
    • Application Areas: Findings are relevant to quantum communication, QKD (quantum key distribution), quantum computing, and quantum sensing.
    • Predictive Advantage: The new formula allows precise prediction of entanglement behavior, aiding the design of robust systems.
    • Platform Independence: Results are platform-agnostic, applicable to photons, neutrons, trapped ions, etc.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III

     

  • Scientists decode Locust Pheromones for Eco-Friendly Control

    Why in the News?

    Researchers in China have discovered a method to curb locust swarming by manipulating their pheromones, paving the way for eco-friendly locust control.

    What are Locust Swarms?

    • Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and travelling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
    • They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
    • In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
    • The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
    • The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
    • Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.

    About Locust Pheromones:

    • Locust Behavioural Phases: Locusts exhibit two behavioural phases—solitary (non-swarming) and gregarious (swarming). The shift to gregariousness leads to swarm formation.
    • Key Pheromone – 4-Vinylanisole (4VA):
      • Identified in 2020 by Chinese researchers.
      • Released from locusts’ hind legs after feeding, especially due to the digestion of phenylalanine (a plant compound).
      • Acts as an aggregation pheromone, attracting other locusts and triggering group behaviour.
    • Biochemical Pathway:
      • Enzymes 4VPMT1 (dominant) and 4VPMT2 convert a precursor molecule (4VP) into 4VA.
      • This process is crucial in converting solitary locusts into swarm-forming gregarious ones.

    Recent Breakthrough and Its Implication:

    • Discovery: Researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences genetically blocked 4VPMT1, preventing locusts from producing 4VA and stopping swarm formation.
    • Limitations: 4NP is toxic and environmentally persistent, raising concerns for large-scale deployment.
    • Strategy Proposed: RNA interference (RNAi)-based biopesticides targeting 4VPMT genes to prevent 4VA production without toxicity.
    • Wider Implications:
      • Marks the first pollution-free molecular approach to locust control.
      • Can reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides, protect crops, and support sustainable agriculture.
      • Offers a precision pest control model based on insect behavioural biochemistry.
    [UPSC 2001] American multinational company, Monsanto has produced an insect-resistant cotton variety that is undergoing field- trials in India. A toxin gene from which ONE of the following bacteria has been transferred to this transgenic cotton ?

    Options: (a) Bacillus subtilis (b) Bacillus thurigiensis* (c) Bacillus amyloliquifanciens (d) Bacillus globlii

     

  • What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

    Why in the News?

    Researchers conducted the most precise global comparison of 10 Optical Atomic Clocks to pave the way for redefining the second by 2030, replacing Caesium Clocks with more accurate Optical ones.

    Definition of a Second:

    • The current SI unit of time is based on caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks.
    • In 1967, one second was defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of a Cs-133 atom.
    • In these clocks, a microwave signal is tuned until Cs atoms react maximally, ensuring the frequency is precisely 9,192,631,770 Hz.
    • Frequency dividers count this microwave frequency, providing one tick per second, thus realizing the SI second.

    About Caesium Atomic Clocks:

    • Overview: Caesium atomic clocks are devices that define the current SI unit of time (second) using the oscillation frequency of caesium-133 atoms.
    • SI Second Standard: One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the caesium-133 atom.
    • Working Principle: These clocks work by tuning microwave signals to resonate with caesium atoms and then counting the resulting waves to measure time precisely.
    • Stability and Usage: They are highly stable and have been used since 1967 to set international time standards.
    • Applications: They are used in GPS systems, telecommunications, scientific research, and by national metrology institutions like India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
    • Accuracy: A typical caesium atomic clock loses about one second every 300 million years.

    What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

    • Overview: They are advanced timekeeping devices that use optical (visible light) frequency transitions in atoms like Strontium (Sr) or Ytterbium (Yb).
    • Measurement Basis: These clocks measure time based on the oscillation of light emitted when atoms transition between energy levels at hundreds of trillions of Hz.
    • Example Frequencies:
      • Strontium: ~429 trillion Hz
      • Ytterbium ions: over 642 trillion Hz
    • Precision Tools: They require lasers and optical frequency combs to count these rapid oscillations accurately.
    • Future Standard: They are being tested worldwide and are expected to replace caesium clocks by 2030 for redefining the SI second.

    How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium ones?

    • Higher Frequency Operation: Optical clocks operate at much higher frequencies, allowing division of time into finer intervals.
    • Improved Precision: By counting 10,000 times more oscillations per second, optical clocks achieve significantly higher precision and stability.
    • Unmatched Accuracy: An optical atomic clock using strontium reportedly drifts by less than one second in 15 billion years, compared to 300 million years for caesium clocks.
    • Advanced Applications: Their precision is critical for: Next-gen GPS systems, Gravitational wave detection, Climate monitoring and research etc.
    • Ultra-High Synchronization: Optical clocks enable cross-continental synchronization at 18 decimal place accuracy, essential for global time coordination.
    • Noise Resilience: They offer greater resistance to environmental noise and external disturbances, improving long-term reliability.
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System?

    Options: (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Israel (d) Japan*

     

  • Quick fix: On India’s Research Development and Innovation scheme

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has recently approved a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme to encourage private companies to invest more in basic scientific research.

    What are the aims and design of the ₹1-lakh crore RDI scheme?

    • Promote Private Investment in Basic Research: The scheme aims to shift the R&D funding balance by incentivising the private sector to invest in foundational scientific research, reversing the current trend where the government contributes around 70% of total R&D spending.
    • Special Purpose Fund under ANRF: A dedicated fund will be set up within the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which will act as a custodian of ₹1-lakh crore and offer low-interest loans to eligible research projects.
    • Single-Window Clearance Mechanism: ANRF is designed as an independent institutional body with oversight from the Ministry of Science, providing a streamlined funding mechanism for universities and research institutions.
    • Targeting Mid-Stage Innovations (TRL-4 and Above): The scheme prioritises projects at Technology Readiness Level 4 or above, focusing on research that has demonstrated lab-scale feasibility and market potential, rather than early-stage, high-risk science.

    Why is ANRF’s role in research funding considered innovative?

    • Single-Window Clearance for R&D Funding: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) offers a unified platform to fund research across academic and industrial institutions, reducing bureaucratic delays. Eg: Instead of applying to multiple agencies like DST, DBT, and CSIR, universities can now approach ANRF for consolidated support.
    • Private Sector Integration in Basic Research: ANRF aims to source 70% of its budget from private players, incentivising corporate investment in long-term, foundational science rather than only market-ready products. Eg: Tech companies can fund AI or clean energy research at IITs through ANRF, blending commercial interest with academic innovation.
    • Bridging Academic-Industry Gaps: By acting as a funding bridge between universities, startups, and industries, ANRF fosters collaboration that accelerates the conversion of research into scalable solutions. Eg: A university developing a green hydrogen prototype can partner with a renewable energy firm under ANRFguidance and funding.

    How does the TRL-4 condition affect R&D inclusivity?

    • Excludes Early-Stage Fundamental Research: The requirement of Technology Readiness Level-4 (TRL-4) support means only projects with demonstrated application potential are eligible. This excludes TRL-1 to TRL-3 projects, which involve basic, foundational research. Eg: A university lab studying the quantum behaviour of materials may be denied funding despite its long-term potential.
    • Narrows Innovation Pipeline: Focusing only on mid-to-late stage research limits the scope for high-risk, high-reward innovation, which often begins at lower TRLs. This curbs diverse and disruptive innovations from entering the ecosystem. Eg: Internet and GPS started as risky low-TRL military projects—India might miss such breakthroughs by ignoring early research.

    What global lessons can India adopt to boost core innovation?

    • Invest in Early-Stage Research through Public Funding: Countries like the United States and Germany fund basic science heavily through institutions like the NSF and Max Planck Society, recognising that core innovation often starts at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Eg: The U.S. government’s early funding of ARPANET (precursor to the Internet) shows how foundational research can lead to transformative technologies.
    • Link Academia, Industry, and Government: Nations such as South Korea and Israel foster strong collaboration between universities, industries, and the state to accelerate innovation from lab to market. Eg: South Korea’s “Innovation Clusters” connect academic research with industrial application, leading to global tech giants like Samsung.

    Why does brain drain persist despite new research schemes?

    • Limited Research Infrastructure and Bureaucracy: Many Indian institutions lack state-of-the-art labs, smooth funding access, and administrative efficiency, discouraging cutting-edge work. Eg: A 2023 study by IISc found that over 40% of PhD graduates in STEM preferred postdoctoral positions abroad due to better facilities and research environments.
    • Lack of Competitive Salaries and Academic Freedom: Indian researchers often face lower salaries, rigid hierarchies, and limited autonomy compared to global peers. Eg: According to a DST report, Indian scientists earn 3–4 times less than those in OECD nations, prompting talent to settle in countries like the US and Germany.
    • Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration: Private sector investment in R&D is low, leading to few applied research opportunities or innovation ecosystems. Eg: In South Korea, over 75% of R&D is industry-funded, whereas India’s share is just around 37%, limiting prospects for applied researchers.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Research Ecosystems and Autonomy: Invest in world-class infrastructure, streamline funding mechanisms, and provide greater academic freedom to scientists and institutions to pursue innovative research without bureaucratic hurdles.
    • Enhance Industry Collaboration and Incentives: Foster stronger industry-academia linkages by offering tax benefits, matching grants, and innovation clusters to attract private R&D investment and create lucrative opportunities for researchers in India.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What are the intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    Linkage:  The article discusses the Union Cabinet’s approval of a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme aimed at incentivizing the private sector to invest in basic research. This PYQ directly addresses the challenge of commercialization of patents in India, a critical bottleneck in the country’s innovation ecosystem that the implicitly highlights by article.

  • Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    Why in the News?

    The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.

    Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:

    • Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
    • Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
    • Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
    • Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
    • Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
    • Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.

    Key Features:

    • Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
    • How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
    • Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
    • Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
    • Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
    • Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
    • Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.

    Breakthrough Discoveries:

    • First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
    • Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
    • Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
    • Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
    • Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
    • Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
    • Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
    • Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
    [UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:

    Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

     

  • How Heat led to Protocells formation on Earth?

    Why in the News?

    A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.

    What are Protocells?

    • Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
    • Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
    • Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
    • Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.

    History of Formation of Protocells:

    • Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
    • Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
    • Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
    • Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.

    Key Findings in the 2025 Study:

    • Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
    • DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
    • Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
    • Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
    • Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.

    2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.

    3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

    Why in the News?

    Microplastics and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are infiltrating the human body, affecting everything from reproduction to cancer risk, metabolism, and child development.

    About Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals:

    • What They Are: Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals interfere with the body’s hormone system, affecting growth, reproduction, mood, and metabolism.
    • How They Work: They mimic or block natural hormones like estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol, leading to disrupted hormonal signals.
    • Why They’re Dangerous: Even low-level exposure during pregnancy or puberty can cause lasting harm.
    • How We’re Exposed: Through eating contaminated food, inhaling polluted air, or skin contact with certain plastics or cosmetics.
    • Where They’re Found: In plastic bottles (Bisphenol A), toys and cosmetics (phthalates like Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), food wrappers (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), and pesticides (dioxins, Polychlorinated Biphenyls).
    • Hidden Harm: They act silently, with long-term effects such as fertility loss, hormonal disruption, or cancer.

    Impact on Human Health:

    • Reproductive Harm: Reduced sperm quality disrupted menstrual cycles, and increased miscarriage risk. Found in semen, placenta, and breast milk.
    • Hormonal Disruption: Chemicals like Bisphenol A trigger early puberty, thyroid issues, and hormonal imbalances.
    • Cancer Risk: Linked to cancers of the breast, uterus, testicles, and prostate. Several are labeled probable carcinogens by global health agencies.
    • Metabolic Effects: Interfere with insulin, promote obesity and type 2 diabetes. PFAS chemicals are linked to liver and heart disease.
    • Brain and Behavior: Associated with ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ in children, especially when exposure happens early in life.
    • Across Generations: May cause gene expression changes that affect health in future generations—even without direct exposure.
    [UPSC 2020] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment?

    Options: (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems * (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields. (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants.