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Subject: Science and Technology

  • How DNA identification works?

    Why in the News?

    Following the tragic crash of the Air India Boeing 787 Dreamliner in Ahmedabad, authorities concluded the identities of the victims using DNA analysis.

    What is DNA?

    • Overview: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the molecule that carries genetic instructions essential for the development, growth, and reproduction of all living organisms.
    • Location in the Body: It is present in nearly every human cell and is unique to each person, except for identical twins.
    • Structure: DNA is made up of four chemical bases—Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Thymine (T)—arranged in sequences that encode genetic data.
    • Biological Fingerprint: Due to its individual uniqueness, DNA acts like a biological fingerprint, useful in crime investigations and disaster victim identification.

    How DNA Identification Works?

    • Use in Forensics: DNA is extracted from human remains when visual identification is not possible due to burns, decomposition, or trauma.
    • Reference Matching: Extracted DNA is compared with:
      • Family reference samples (from parents, children, siblings)
      • Personal belongings (like a toothbrush, razor, or hairbrush)
    • Sample Reliability: Bones and teeth are preferred in degraded conditions, as they preserve DNA more effectively.
    • Forensic Accuracy: Specialized forensic labs analyze and match DNA sequences, confirming identity with high levels of accuracy.

    Common DNA Analysis Methods:

    1. Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis:
      • Focuses on short, repeating sequences of DNA that vary among individuals.
      • Requires nuclear DNA, typically from well-preserved samples.
      • Considered the gold standard for forensic identification.
    1. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis:
      • Extracts DNA from mitochondria, not the nucleus, making it more resilient in degraded samples.
      • Inherited only from the mother, allowing tracing through the maternal lineage.
    1. Y-Chromosome Analysis:
      • Targets Y chromosomes, passed from father to son.
      • Useful for identifying male victims when paternal relatives are available.
    1. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Analysis:
      • Detects single-letter changes in the DNA sequence.
      • Applied when DNA is highly degraded and other methods are less effective.
      • Can be used with reference items like personal hygiene tools.
    [UPSC 2000] Assertion (A): DNA Finger-printing” has become a powerful tool to establish paternity and identity of criminals in rape and assault cases. Reason (R): Trace evidence such as hairs, saliva and dried semen are adequate for DNA analysis.

    Options: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a correct explanation of A (c) A is true, but R is false (d) A is false, but R is true

     

  • What are Black Boxes?

    Why in the News?

    Authorities have recovered the black box from the crash site of the recent incident in Ahmedabad.

    black box

    About Black Boxes:

    • Purpose: Black boxes are essential flight data recording devices used in aircraft to aid in accident investigation and flight safety analysis.
    • Development: Australian scientist David Warren in 1954, developed the first practical FDR after investigating mid-air explosions.
    • Color and Visibility: Despite the name, black boxes are painted bright orange with reflective material to make them easily visible after a crash.
    • Two Main Types: Aircraft typically have two black boxes:
      1. Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and
      2. Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR).
    • Single Unit: Some aircraft integrate both functions into a single combined unit.
    • How does it work?
      • Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): The CVR records cockpit audio, including pilot conversations, radio transmissions, alarm sounds, and background noises like engine hum or warning tones.
      • Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR): The DFDR logs key flight performance data, including altitude, airspeed, direction, engine parameters, and system operations, capturing thousands of data points per second.
      • Installation Location: Black boxes are usually installed in the tail section of the aircraft, as this area is statistically more likely to remain intact in a crash.
      • Recording Capacity: The CVR records the last 2 hours of cockpit audio on a continuous loop, while the DFDR stores up to 25 hours of flight data.
      • Durability and Protection: Black boxes use solid-state memory chips housed in crash-survivable casings that can endure high-impact forces, extreme temperatures (up to 1,100°C), and deep-sea pressure.
      • Underwater Locator Beacons (ULBs): Each black box includes a beacon that emits signals for up to 30 days, aiding search teams in locating the devices in the event of a water crash.

    Use of Black Boxes in India:

    • Regulation in India: In India, aircraft crash investigations are conducted by the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation, using black box data as primary evidence.
    • Recent Development (April 2025): India established its first dedicated Flight Recorders Laboratory in New Delhi, strengthening the country’s capability to analyze crash data independently and efficiently.
    [UPSC 2025] GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentation.  Which of the following statements is/are correct in respect of GAGAN?

    I. It is designed to provide additional accuracy and integrity.

    II. It will allow more uniform and high-quality air traffic management.

    III. It will provide benefits only in aviation but not in other modes of transportation.

    Options: (a) I, II and III (b) II and III only (c) I only (d) I and II only*

     

  • Science behind right AC Temperature

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Power is considering a policy to restrict the temperature range of new air conditioners (ACs) in India to between 20°C and 28°C.

    Important Facts and Keywords related to ACs:

    • Efficiency Ratings: ACs have ratings like SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) or EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio). A higher rating means the AC uses less power to cool the same space.
    • Inverter Technology: Some ACs use inverter compressors, which adjust speed instead of turning on and off repeatedly. This saves energy and keeps the room temperature more stable.
    • Humidity Control: ACs also help by removing moisture from the air. This keeps humidity around 40–60%, which feels more comfortable and prevents mold.
    • Cooling Capacity: ACs are measured in tons. A “ton” of cooling comes from the amount of heat needed to melt 1 ton (~2,000 pounds) of ice in 24 hours.

    How do Air Conditioners Work?

    • Basic Idea: Air conditioners (ACs) work like a heat-moving machine. They take heat from inside your room and push it outside, making the room cooler. They do this using a special fluid called a refrigerant, and a system called the vapour-compression cycle.
    • Main Parts and What They Do:
      • Evaporator: This part is inside your room. The refrigerant, which is very cold here, absorbs heat from the indoor air and turns into a gas. It also removes moisture, so your room feels less humid.
      • Compressor: This is outside the house. It squeezes the refrigerant gas, making it very hot (about 90°C) and high-pressure. This part uses the most electricity in the AC.
      • Condenser: The hot gas then flows through the condenser coil outside. It releases heat into the outdoor air and turns back into a liquid.
      • Expansion Valve: This part lowers the pressure of the liquid refrigerant, making it cold again before it goes back to the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
    • Refrigerant: The refrigerant is a specially designed gas that changes state easily at low temperatures and pressures, making it ideal for absorbing and releasing heat rapidly. Modern refrigerants like R-32 or R-410A are more energy-efficient and environmentally safer than older ones like CFCs and HCFCs.

    Why limit AC Temperature settings?

    • Energy Efficiency Data: According to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), setting an AC to 24°C instead of a lower setting can save 6% electricity per 1°C increase.
    • National Impact: If adopted widely, this temperature setting could help India save 20 billion units of electricity annually.
    • Health Risks at Low Temperatures: Temperatures below 18°C are linked to hypertension, asthma, and respiratory infections, especially among children, the elderly, and people with weakened thermoregulation.
    • Evidence from Global Studies: Research in Japan, the UK, and New Zealand shows that slightly warmer indoor settings lead to better respiratory and cardiovascular health.
    • WHO Recommendation: The World Health Organization advises 18°C as the minimum safe indoor temperature in temperate climates.
    • Thermal Comfort Standards: Guidelines like ASHRAE-55 and ISO 7730 suggest optimal indoor temperatures between 20°C and 24°C for lightly clothed people, with adjustments based on local climate and culture.

    Global Cooling Trends and the Need for Regulation:

    • Global AC Usage Growth: As of 2022, there were an estimated 2 billion air conditioners in use worldwide, with residential units tripling since 2000, especially in India and China.
    • Access Gap in Asia-Pacific: Despite this growth, 43% of the Asia-Pacific population still lacks access to adequate cooling solutions.
    • Environmental Impact: Air conditioning significantly increases electricity use and carbon emissions, especially in countries with fossil fuel-dependent grids.
    • India’s AC Load Projection: By 2030, India’s total connected AC load is expected to reach 200 gigawatts, requiring urgent demand management strategies.
    • Consumer Awareness Tools: Initiatives like default settings at 24°C and energy labelling empower consumers to make informed energy-efficient choices.
    • Benefits of Regulation: A regulated temperature range can help lower energy consumption, reduce peak power demand, and support public health.
    [UPSC 2003] Consider the following statements:

    1. Steam at 100°C and boiling water at 100°C contain the same amount of heat.

    2. Latent heat of fusion of ice is equal to the latent heat of vaporization of water.

    3. In an air-conditioner, heat is extracted from the room-air at the evaporator coils and is rejected out at the condenser coils.

    Which of these statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Only 2 (d) Only 3*

     

  • CROPIC Initiative

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare is set to launch CROPIC (Collection of Real Time Observations & Photo of Crops)- a digital initiative that uses field photography and AI-based models to monitor crop health and automate loss assessment.

    What is CROPIC?

    • Overview: CROPIC is a digital initiative launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
    • Objective: The aim of CROPIC is to monitor crop health, assess crop losses, and assist with insurance payouts under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).
    • Technology Integration: It leverages field photography, artificial intelligence, and a cloud-based analysis system to streamline crop monitoring.
    • Process: CROPIC is designed to automate the crop loss assessment process and improve the transparency and speed of compensation to farmers.
    • Pilot Timeline: The initiative will be piloted during Kharif 2025 and Rabi 2025–26, and expanded nationwide in 2026.
    • Implementation: The project is funded through the Fund for Innovation and Technology (FIAT) under PMFBY, which has an allocation of ₹825 crore.

    Key Features of CROPIC:

    • Mobile App-Based Data Collection: Crops are photographed 4–5 times per season using the CROPIC mobile app, with images collected by farmers and field officials.
    • Crowdsourced Inputs: Real-time photographs are crowdsourced directly from the field, ensuring up-to-date and location-specific crop data.
    • AI-Based Photo Analysis: Images are uploaded to a cloud platform, where AI algorithms analyze them to detect:
      • Crop type and stage
      • Health status
      • Visible damage or stress
    • Web-Based Dashboard: Processed data is presented on a visual dashboard for use by government officials and policymakers.
    • Insurance Integration: During claim processing under PMFBY, officials use the app to gather photographic evidence, automating crop loss verification.
    • Crop Signature Database: CROPIC will help build a digital image library of crop types, aiding future research and development in agricultural analytics.
    [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

    1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location

    2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location

    3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • BBX32 Protein in Plants

    Why in the News?

    A new study from researchers at IISER Bhopal has revealed how a single protein called BBX32 helps plants time the critical moment they emerge from darkness into light.

    What is BBX32? 

    • Function: BBX32 is a plant protein that helps a seedling keep its protective hook closed as it pushes through the soil.
    • Protection Mechanism: The hook shape shields the soft shoot tip in darkness; BBX32 extends this protection until it’s safe to open.
    • Ethylene Activation: Underground, the plant hormone ethylene activates the BBX32 gene, signaling the seedling to stay protected.

    How does it work?

    • Light Stabilization: Once exposed to light, BBX32 is no longer broken down, allowing it to accumulate on one side of the hook.
    • Protein Chain Reaction: BBX32 activates PIF3, which then activates HLS1, the protein that directly keeps the hook bent.
    • Lab Testing: Plants were tested in different light types and sand to simulate real soil. Extra ethylene increased BBX32 activity.
    • Mutant Comparison: Plants without BBX32 opened too early. Only 25% broke through sand, compared to 40% of normal and 80% with extra BBX32.
    • Degradation Control: In darkness, COP1 breaks down BBX32. Ethylene slows this process. Light fully stabilizes BBX32.
    • Coordinated Timing: The protein’s behavior is guided by light, hormone signals, and pressure, ensuring the hook opens at the right time.

    Why is studying BBX32 important?

    • Better Crop Survival: BBX32 can help develop crops that grow well in dense, wet, or compacted soils.
    • Climate Adaptation: As climate change leads to tougher soil conditions, BBX32 can improve seedling emergence and survival.
    • Boosting Yields: Supporting hook protection even slightly longer can lead to stronger early growth and higher productivity.
    • Genetic Research: BBX32 is a potential target for gene editing in plants to improve resilience during germination.
    • Broader Insight: Studying BBX32 helps us understand how plants balance internal signals with external cues for safe growth.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhabit water loss?

    1. Hard and waxy leaves 2. Tiny leaves 3. Thorns instead of leaves

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • Expert Explains: Why Axiom-4 matters

    Why in the News?

    Recently, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla’s trip to the International Space Station (ISS) on the Axiom-4 mission is not just a proud moment but an important step forward in India’s growing space journey.

    What distinguishes Shukla’s Axiom-4 mission from Rakesh Sharma’s 1984 spaceflight?

    Rakesh Sharma’s 1984 Spaceflight Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 Mission (2025)
    Nature of Participation Symbolic participation as part of a Soviet mission Strategically integrated with India’s own space goals (e.g., Gaganyaan)
    Technological & Program Context India lacked space infrastructure and human spaceflight roadmap ISRO is a global space leader with advanced plans, including space station
    Practical Value & Experience Limited scope for operational follow-up and knowledge transfer Provides real-life experience and critical inputs for Gaganyaan and beyond

     

    Why is Shukla’s mission crucial for India’s Gaganyaan programme? 

    • Real-life Operational Experience: Shukla’s direct experience in space provides practical insights that simulations and training cannot replicate. Eg: As designated pilot, he will operate systems, respond to contingencies, and interact with international crew — skills critical for Gaganyaan’s success.
    • Validation of Safety Protocols: Human spaceflight demands rigorous safety and risk management strategies. Eg: Shukla’s feedback will help ISRO refine life-support systems, re-entry safety measures, and astronaut training for Gaganyaan.
    • Technology Testing and Experimentation: Axiom-4 allows ISRO to test custom-designed biological and technological experiments in zero gravity before Gaganyaan. Eg: Muscle degradation studies and moong dal growth experiments can inform long-duration crew health planning.
    • Knowledge Transfer and Crew Preparation: Shukla becomes a knowledge resource for other Gaganyaan astronauts and mission planners. Eg: His debriefings and experience logs can train upcoming Indian astronauts in real mission dynamics.
    • Interface with the ISS and International Best Practices: Gaganyaan and future Indian missions will benefit from understanding ISS operational standards. Eg: Shukla’s ISS stay gives ISRO insights into modular space living, docking operations, international coordination, etc., crucial for building India’s own space station.

    How do Axiom-4 experiments align with India’s space research goals?

    • Focus on Human Physiology in Space: Experiments like muscle behaviour studies in zero gravity help understand health impacts of space travel. Eg: Findings will aid in preparing astronauts for long-duration missions under Gaganyaan and future space station plans.
    • Biological Experiments for Space Farming: Studies on sprouting moong dal and micro-algae explore sustainable food solutions in space. Eg: Results can support self-sustaining life-support systems for interplanetary travel or moon habitats.
    •  Indigenised Research Capabilities: Experiments are customised to Indian needs, marking ISRO’s entry into tailor-made space research. Eg: Conducting India-centric biology and material science experiments builds a national space science ecosystem.
    • Data for Technology Development: Outcomes can validate and improve space health-monitoring tools and biological sensors. Eg: Data from Axiom-4 can be used to refine wearables for vital monitoring in Gaganyaan.
    • Laying Groundwork for Future Missions: Insights from Axiom-4 serve as trial runs for similar experiments on Gaganyaan and beyond. Eg: Positive results could lead to advanced biotech payloads on future ISRO-led space missions.

    What is the role of the private sector in India’s space economy?

    • Enhancing Innovation and R&D: Private companies foster cutting-edge research and technological advancements in space applications. Eg: Startups like Skyroot Aerospace and Agnikul Cosmos are developing indigenous launch vehicles.
    • Reducing Burden on ISRO: Private participation allows ISRO to focus on core research and strategic missions, while routine tasks are outsourced. Eg: Satellite manufacturing and component fabrication are now being handled by private firms.
    • Boosting Economic Contribution: Expanding private sector involvement helps increase India’s share in the global space market, currently at just 2%. Eg: With policy support, India aims to capture 10% of the $1 trillion space economy by 2030.
    • Job Creation and Skill Development: The growth of private space ventures leads to new employment opportunities and capacity building. Eg: Space-tech startups are hiring young engineers, promoting STEM education and aerospace skills.
    •  Encouraging Global Collaborations: Private firms enable international partnerships and technology transfers, enhancing global credibility. Eg: Pixxel has partnered with international clients for hyperspectral imaging satellites.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish a Robust Regulatory Framework: Create a clear, transparent, and enabling policy environment through institutions like IN-SPACe to facilitate private investments, streamline licensing, and ensure intellectual property protection.
    • Strengthen Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Promote joint missions, co-development of technologies, and knowledge sharing between ISRO and private companies to accelerate innovation and reduce development costs.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2017] India has successfully achieved several milestones in space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbitter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically.

    Linkage:  The article “India’s New Era of Human Spaceflight” explicitly states that Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 mission is designed to provide critical inputs for India’s upcoming Gaganyaan mission, which is the nation’s first human spaceflight, thereby filling this very gap in technology and logistics.

  • Voyager Tardigrades Experiment

    Why in the News?

    As part of his upcoming two-week stay on the International Space Station (ISS) under Axiom-4 Mission, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will conduct the Voyager Tardigrades experiment.

    Voyager Tardigrades Experiment

    What are Tardigrades?

    • Tardigrades, also called “water bears” or “moss piglets”, are microscopic aquatic animals that have existed for around 600 million years.
    • They are about 0.5 mm long, with four pairs of clawed legs and a specialized mouth for sucking nutrients from plant cells and tiny invertebrates.
    • Tardigrades live in diverse habitats, including mosses, lichens, mountaintops, ocean depths, and even Antarctica.
    • They are famous for their extreme resilience, having survived all five major mass extinction events and capable of enduring conditions that would kill most other life forms.

    About Voyager Tardigrades Experiment:

    • Overview: The experiment will be conducted by Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla during his mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS).
    • Experimental Process: Tardigrades will be transported in their dormant “tun” state, then revived and observed in microgravity conditions.
    • Research Focus: The experiment will examine how space radiation and microgravity affect tardigrade survival, reproduction, and DNA repair mechanisms.
    • Scientific Objective: Researchers aim to identify genes responsible for space resilience in tardigrades and apply these insights to enhance astronaut protection and preserve biological materials during long-term space travel.

    Significance of Tardigrades in Space Research:

    • Extreme Survivors: They are among the most resilient organisms on Earth, capable of surviving temperatures from near absolute zero to over 150°C, intense radiation, deep-sea pressure, and even the vacuum of space.
    • Dormancy Mechanisms: Their survival strategy relies on cryptobiosis and anhydrobiosis, where their metabolism drops nearly to zero and water content is drastically reduced.
    • Protective Proteins: They produce unique proteins like CAHS, which form a gel-like matrix around cells to protect them from damage in extreme environments.
    • Biomedical Applications: Studying these proteins may help scientists develop radiation shields for astronauts, preserve human tissues and organs, and advance cryopreservation techniques.
    • Agricultural and Material Use: Insights from tardigrades could also lead to engineering drought-resistant crops and designing new biomaterials for use on Earth and in space.
    [UPSC 2012] Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created?

    1. To enable them to withstand drought

    2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce

    3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations

    4. To increase their shelf life.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Magnetic Isolation and Concentration Cryo-electron Microscopy (MagIC)

    Why in the news?

    Researchers from Rockefeller University introduced MagIC, a new method that allows cryo-EM to work with samples up to 100 times more dilute, making it easier to study rare or hard-to-purify molecules.

    About Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM):

    • Cryo-EM is a powerful microscope method used by scientists to see the 3D shapes of very small things like proteins, viruses, and cell parts.
    • In cryo-EM:
      • The sample is frozen very fast to keep it in its natural shape.
      • An electron beam is used instead of light to capture detailed images at extremely cold temperatures.
    • It helps in:
      • Understanding how diseases work
      • Designing new medicines
      • Studying cell processes
    • Problem: Cryo-EM usually needs a lot of the molecule to work well.
      • If the sample is too dilute (too weak), it’s hard to get good images.
    • Why MagIC helps: It solves this big problem by concentrating and organizing particles using magnetism and smart software, making cryo-EM work even for rare or tiny amounts of molecules.

    What is MagIC (Magnetic Isolation and Concentration cryo-EM)?

    • Overview: It is a new method developed by scientists in the U.S. to make it easier to study rare biological molecules under a special microscope called cryo-EM.
    • Sampling involved: Normally, cryo-EM needs the molecules in a sample to be very concentrated, which is hard when the molecules are rare or hard to collect.
    • MagIC solves this problem by using:
      • Tiny magnetic beads (50 nanometers wide) that stick to the molecules researchers want to study.
      • A magnet that pulls these beads together into one area.
    • This way, even when the solution has less than 0.0005 milligrams per milliliter of the molecules, scientists can still get useful images.

    Key Features of MagIC:

    • Magnetic Pulling: After molecules stick to the tiny magnetic beads, a magnet pulls them into clusters, making them easier to see.
    • Low Sample Requirement: Only 5 nanograms of sample per grid are needed. That’s a very tiny amount—much less than earlier methods.
    • Faster Imaging: The magnetic beads are easy to see, so scientists can quickly find areas with useful particles in the microscope.
    • Smart Software – DuSTER (Duplicated Selection to Exclude Rubbish):
      • It helps remove bad or blurry images and keep only the clear ones.
      • It picks each particle twice and only keeps it if the location matches both times.
    • MagIC works with samples that are 100 times more dilute than what cryo-EM could handle before.
    [UPSC 2023] ‘Aerial metagenomics’ best refers to which one of the following situations?

    Options: (a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at one go* (b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian species of a habitat (c) Using air-borne devices to colect blood samples from moving animals (d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect plant and animal samples from land surfaces and water bodies

     

  • KATRIN Experiment sets strongest Limit on Neutrino Mass

    Why in the News?

    The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.

    What are Neutrinos?

    • Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
    • They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
    • Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
    • They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
    • Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
    • Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.

    About KATRIN Experiment:

    • What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
    • Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
    • Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
    • Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.

    How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?

    • KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
    • A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
    • By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.

    India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:

    • Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
    • INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
    • Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
    • Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
    • Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
    [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:

    1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.

    2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.

    3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.

    4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 *

     

  • How extracting and producing nickel can be made more sustainable 

    Why in the News?

    A new study by the Max Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials has introduced a new method to extract nickel using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon. This cleaner, carbon-free process is being seen as a major breakthrough.

    What is the new hydrogen plasma method? 

    • Hydrogen gas is converted into plasma using an electric arc furnace. This plasma reacts with nickel oxide to produce pure nickel and water, instead of carbon dioxide.
    • The method is particularly effective for laterite ores, which are abundant in tropical regions like Odisha’s Sukinda belt, making it economically viable for India’s low-grade nickel resources.

    How is it different from traditional methods?

    Aspect Traditional Method Hydrogen Plasma Method
    Process Type Multi-step: calcination, smelting, reduction, refining Single-step metallurgical process using hydrogen plasma
    Reducing Agent Carbon (produces CO₂ as a byproduct) Hydrogen plasma (produces water as a byproduct)
    Environmental Impact High energy use and CO₂ emissions Up to 84% lower CO₂ emissions and ~18% more energy-efficient

    What is the importance of nickel? 

    • Crucial for Clean Energy Technologies: Nickel is essential in manufacturing lithium-ion batteries, used in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems. Eg: High-nickel batteries like NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) offer higher energy density and longer life for EVs like Tesla or Tata Nexon EV.
    • Used in Stainless Steel Production: Over 60% of global nickel is used in making stainless steel, providing strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Eg: Used in construction materials, kitchenware, medical instruments, and infrastructure.
    • Strategic Industrial Metal: Plays a key role in the aerospace, defence, and electronics industries due to its ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Eg: Used in jet engines, turbines, and superalloys.
    • Supports Green Infrastructure Goals: Nickel-based technologies support the transition to net-zero and green economy targets. Eg: Solar panels, wind turbines, and grid-scale battery storage use nickel-based components.
    • Economic and Strategic Resource for Countries: Nations with nickel reserves gain economic and geopolitical advantage, especially in the energy transition era. Eg: India’s reserves in Odisha (Sukinda region) can reduce import dependency and boost Atmanirbhar Bharatgoals.

    Where are India’s nickel reserves found?

    • Odisha – Sukinda Region: Major nickel laterite reserves are located in Sukinda valley, Jajpur district, Odisha. Eg: Found as nickeliferous limonite in chromite mine overburden with 0.4–0.9% nickel content.
    • Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh: Smaller deposits are also reported in parts of Jharkhand (e.g., Singhbhum) and Chhattisgarh, although less exploited.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • National Critical Mineral Mission: Launched in January 2025 with ₹16,300–34,300 crore outlay to enhance domestic exploration, mining, processing, and recycling of minerals like nickel, lithium, and cobalt.
    • Policy Reforms & Incentives: Amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act and the PLI scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell batteries promote private sector participation and domestic EV battery manufacturing.
    • Global Partnerships & Block Acquisition: India is securing overseas mineral assets via the Mineral Security Partnership and Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (KABIL), while also auctioning critical mineral blocks domestically.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote R&D and Industrial Scaling of Hydrogen Plasma Technology: India should invest in pilot projects and public-private partnerships to test and scale the hydrogen plasma method domestically, especially in regions like Odisha with abundant low-grade laterite nickel ores.
    • Strengthen Renewable Energy Integration in Mining Processes: To ensure true carbon neutrality, the electricity used in nickel extraction (especially in electric arc furnaces) must be sourced from renewables like solar, wind, or green hydrogen-based grids.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2023] How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?

    Linkage: Nickel is an important metal used in Electric Vehicles (EVs), which are seen as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuel-powered vehicles. However, the article highlight that while EVs reduce operational emissions, the manufacturing of their lithium-ion batteries, particularly the carbon-intensive extraction of nickel, creates hidden environmental costs.