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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Hoyle–Narlikar Theory of Gravity

    Why in the News?

    Jayant Narlikar, renowned Indian astrophysicist and Padma Vibhushan awardee, who co-developed the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory to refine Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, passed away in Pune at the age of 87.

    About Jayant Narlikar and His Contributions:

    • Early Life: Born in 1938 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, and pursued a PhD at Cambridge University under Fred Hoyle.
    • Scientific Influence: Hoyle had earlier developed the steady-state theory with Bondi and Gold and coined the term “Big Bang” sarcastically in 1948.
    • Narlikar’s Belief: He argued that the universe always looks the same, as new matter fills the gaps created by expansion.
    • Critique of Big Bang: He believed the Big Bang theory includes unproven assumptions, especially about the sudden origin of all matter and energy.
    • Enduring Work: Despite steady-state theory’s decline, Narlikar’s contributions remain respected for their scientific depth and originality.

    What Is the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory?

    Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar developed a theory to answer one of the most basic questions: Why do things have mass, and how are they connected to the rest of the universe?

    • Based on Mach’s Principle: They believed your mass isn’t just something you have on your own. Instead, it depends on your connection to everything else in the universe. That means even faraway stars and galaxies play a role in what you weigh.
    • Inertia Explained: In simple terms, when you feel resistance while trying to move (inertia), it’s because of the gravitational pull of all the matter in the universe acting on you at once.
    • Mass is Relative: Earth, the Sun, or even you don’t have a fixed mass. That mass is influenced by everything else that exists out there, no matter how far away it is.
    • C-field and Steady-State Model
      • New Idea – C-Field: They introduced the “creation field”, which creates new matter in space.
      • Universe Without a Start: Their steady-state theory says the universe has no beginning or end, is always expanding, and keeps its density constant.
      • Against the Big Bang: They believed the Big Bang couldn’t explain everything we see today.
      • Hydrogen Creation: They said hydrogen atoms form in space to fill in the gaps as the universe grows.
    • Issues with the Theory:
      • CMB Discovery (1965): Scientists found cosmic microwave background radiation, strong proof of the Big Bang.
      • Other Evidence: Later discoveries like young, chaotic galaxies and studies by Hawking and Penrose supported the Big Bang.
      • Current View: The Big Bang theory became more accepted, but Hoyle and Narlikar’s ideas are still respected for their scientific value.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:

    1. Light is affected by gravity.

    2. The Universe is constantly expanding.

    3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

    Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • NASA’s GRAIL Mission

    Why in the News?

    Scientists now believe the Moon’s near side looks different from its far side due to its internal structure and volcanic past, revealed by NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission.

    About the GRAIL Mission:

    • Launch: NASA launched the GRAIL mission in 2011 to study the moon’s internal structure.
    • Spacecraft Used: It used two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, flying in tandem to detect gravity variations.
    • Objectives: The mission measured tiny changes in distance between the two spacecraft caused by differences in the moon’s gravitational field.
    • Scientific Outcome: The data revealed important details about the moon’s crust thickness, interior composition, and subsurface features.

    Key Findings: Reasons for the Moon’s Asymmetry

    • Tidal Deformation: The nearside bends more than the farside due to Earth’s gravity, a process called tidal deformation.
    • Internal Activity: The nearside is geologically warmer and more active, suggesting internal structural differences.
    • Volcanic History: Ancient volcanic activity on the nearside formed large basaltic plains, while the farside remained rugged and less active.
    • Heat Distribution: Elements like thorium and titanium accumulated on the nearside, making it 100–200°C hotter than the farside.
    • Crust Thickness: The nearside has a thinner crust, allowing magma to escape, while the farside’s thicker crust trapped heat and blocked eruptions.
    • Thermal Contrast: The thinner crust also allowed more heat-producing elements to concentrate, increasing the temperature gap between the two sides.

    Why do these findings matter?

    • Support for Lunar Missions: Insights from GRAIL help design better navigation and timing systems for future lunar operations.
    • Applications: GRAIL’s method can be applied to other moons like Enceladus and Ganymede, which may hold potential for life.
    [UPSC 2007] NASA’S Deep Impact space mission was employed to take detailed pictures of which comet nucleus?

    Options: (a)  Halley’s Comet (b) Hale-Bopp (c) Hyakutake (d) Tempel 1 *

     

  • What is A-to-I mRNA Editing?

    Why in the News?

    Chinese researchers found that A-to-I mRNA editing, once considered random, plays a key role in development, especially in the wheat pathogen Fusarium graminearum.

    About A-to-I mRNA Editing:

    • mRNA: Our cells use DNA as a guide to make proteins. First, they copy DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).
    • A-to-I editing: This is a process where the letter adenosine (A) in mRNA is changed to inosine (I) by special enzymes called ADARs. The cell reads inosine as guanine (G), which can change the protein being made.
    • Why it matters:
      • It helps the cell make different versions of proteins without changing the DNA.
      • It can remove early stop signals, allowing full proteins to be made.
      • It helps the cell adapt to different conditions or stages of life.

    What did scientists discover in the fungus?

    • Fungal Discovery: Scientists found that the fungus edits over 26,000 mRNA sites during reproduction, not during normal growth.
    • Development Role: This editing fixes early stop signals in key genes, helping the fungus develop and reproduce properly.
    • Stress Adaptation: Some genes work better unedited under stress, showing the fungus edits only when needed for survival.

    Does this happen in humans?

    Yes, A-to-I editing is common in humans:

    • In the brain: It helps with brain growth, memory, and learning.
    • In the immune system: It helps fight infections and control inflammation.

    Health Implications:

    • Health Risks: Faulty editing is linked to epilepsy and certain cancers.
    • Therapeutic Potential: Understanding this process can lead to new treatments and improve gene-editing technologies.
    [UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:

    Options: (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism * (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

     

  • 125 Years of Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO) 

    Why in the News?

    The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.

    About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):

    • Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
    • Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
    • Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
    • Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
    • Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
    • Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.

    Important Observations / Discoveries:

    • Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
    • Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
    • Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
    • Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
    [UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?

     

  • Scientists create 2D Metal Sheets using High-Pressure Technique

    Why in the News?

    A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.

    About the 2D Metal Created:

    • Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
    • Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
    • Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
    • Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.

    Technologies Involved:

    • Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
    • Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
    • Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
    • Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
    • Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
    • Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.

    Note: 

    Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size.

     

    [UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?

    1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.

    2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.

    3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.

    4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX Mission) enters Preliminary Design Phase

    Why in the News?

    India and Japan have begun the preliminary design phase of the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration).

    Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions

    • Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission, focused on mineral and chemical mapping.
    • Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter mission with 98% success.
    • Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved a historic soft landing on the Moon’s south pole.
    • Chandrayaan-4 (Upcoming, 2027):
      • It is a planned lunar sample return mission by ISRO, expected to launch around 2027, with the landing site near Statio Shiv Shakti at the lunar south pole.
      • The mission involves five modules launched on two LVM-3 rockets, later docked in Earth orbit to form an integrated spacecraft.
      • A robotic arm and drill will collect 2–3 kg of surface and sub-surface lunar samples for return to Earth.
      • The Re-entry Module (RM) will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere with the samples using ballistic re-entry, marking India’s first attempt at sample return.
    • Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Aimed at deeper exploration with global participation.
    • Manned Lunar Mission: Prospected lunar landing by 2040.

    About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:

    • It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and JAXA.
    • Approval: Cabinet approval for the mission was granted on March 10, 2025.
    • Launch: It will carry a 6.5-tonne payload and launch aboard Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027–28.
    • Collaboration: The lander is being developed by ISRO and the 350-kg rover by JAXA.
    • Duration: The mission is expected to last 100 days, with a possible extension of one year.
    • Mission Goals and Objectives:
      • Explore water and regolith in the lunar south pole’s Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs).
      • Drill into the Moon’s surface, analyse soil samples, and perform in-situ experiments.
      • Assess water content, quality, and analyse surface volatiles using advanced instrumentation.
      • Exploration of the far side of the Moon.

    Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:

    • A total of 7 scientific instruments will be onboard the mission.
    • ISRO’s Contribution: Development of the lander; creation of one sensor in a major four-sensor instrument.
    • JAXA’s Contribution: Development of the rover and three sensors in the same instrument; Rover is designed to climb 25° inclines and operate on a complex battery charging protocol.
    • ESA (European Space Agency): Developing a mass spectrometer.
    • NASA: Contributing neutron spectrometers.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

    Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by India

     

  • How did India develop genome edited rice?

    Why in the News?

    Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan recently said that India is the first country in the world to create rice varieties using genome editing technology.

    What are the new varieties?

    A team of researchers from different institutions, led by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), developed two new rice varieties — DRR Dhan 100 (called Kamala), made from the high-yielding Samba Mahsuri rice, and Pusa DST Rice 1, made from the Maruteru 1010 (MTU1010) variety.

    What are the benefits of the new rice varieties Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1?

    • Higher Yield: Both varieties produce more rice per hectare than their parent strains. Eg: Kamala yields 5.37 tonnes/ha vs. Samba Mahsuri’s 4.5 tonnes/ha; Pusa DST Rice 1 yields 3,508 kg/ha, which is 9.66% more than MTU1010’s 3,199 kg/ha.
    • Drought Tolerance: Kamala is more resilient to drought, ensuring stable harvests during water shortages. Eg: Farmers can harvest good crops with less water in drought-prone areas using Kamala.
    • Early Maturity: Kamala matures 20 days earlier, reducing resource use and allowing faster crop cycles. Eg: Early harvest saves water and fertilizer, enabling farmers to grow a second crop sooner.
    • Salinity and Alkalinity Resistance: Pusa DST Rice 1 tolerates coastal salinity and alkaline soils better than its parent, boosting yield in tough environments. Eg: It yields 30.4% more under coastal salinity and 14.66% more under alkalinity than MTU1010.
    • Reduced Environmental Impact: Early maturity of Kamala lowers methane emissions from rice fields, helping fight climate change. Eg: Shorter growing period means less methane released compared to traditional rice varieties.

    Why are there objections to the genome-edited rice varieties?

    • Lack of Transparency: There is concern that the genome-edited rice varieties were announced without adequate field-level data being shared publicly, making the scientific claims appear premature. Eg: Venugopal Badaravada, a former ICAR governing body member, criticized the lack of transparency and was later expelled, raising concerns about institutional accountability.
    • Regulatory Concerns: Critics argue that exempting genome-edited crops (especially SDN-1 and SDN-2) from GM regulations is legally questionable and may bypass biosafety evaluations. Eg: The Coalition for a GM-Free India stated that de-regulating gene editing is “outright illegal” under India’s current biosafety framework.
    • Seed Sovereignty and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Activists fear that the gene-editing tools used are patented, which could threaten farmers’ seed rights and give control to private corporations. Eg: Concerns were raised about IPR entanglements with the technologies used in Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1, potentially compromising India’s food and seed sovereignty.

    When will the new rice seeds be available for farmers?

    The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) anticipates that certified seeds of these varieties will be available to farmers within two years, following the completion of necessary processes such as Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) registration and seed multiplication.

    Way forward: 

    • Ensure Transparent Evaluation: Conduct multi-location field trials and publicly share performance data to build scientific credibility and public trust.
    • Safeguard Farmer Rights and Regulatory Oversight: Develop a clear IPR policy and establish robust, independent biosafety review mechanisms to protect seed sovereignty and address legal concerns.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2020] In what way have the science-based technologies triggered off striking changes in agriculture?

    Linkage: Genome editing is a science-based technology that represents a significant advancement capable of triggering changes in agriculture by developing improved crop varieties.

  • Scientists at CERN Create Gold from Lead

    Why in the News?

    In a recent breakthrough at CERN’s ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), scientists observed that near-collisions of lead ions in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can result in the formation of gold atoms and other novel nuclei.

    How was Lead converted into Gold?

    • In ultra-peripheral collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, lead atoms passed close without touching, creating strong electromagnetic fields.
    • These fields released photons that caused some lead atoms to lose 3 protons and 2 neutrons, transforming them into gold-203.
    • Between 2015–2018, 86 billion gold atoms were created—just 29 picograms—scientifically important but not commercially valuable.

    About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

    • The LHC has been working since September 2008 and is the world’s largest particle accelerator.
    • Development: Between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.
    • Location: It lies in a 27-kilometre tunnel under the France–Switzerland border, near Geneva, and is operated by CERN.
    • Purpose: It smashes protons or lead atoms together to help scientists study the smallest building blocks of the universe.
    • Working Mechanism: About 9,600 magnets guide particles in a circle using strong magnetic fields.
    • Speed: Particles travel at 99.999999% the speed of light, creating conditions like the Big Bang.
    • Particles Studied: The LHC focuses on quarks (which come in six types) and gluons, which hold quarks together using the strong nuclear force.
    • Members: 24 countries spans across the Europe. Japan and US are Observer.
    • India and LHC: 
      • India signed a cooperation agreement with CERN in 1991 and joined its Large Hadron Collider project in 1996; it became an Associate Member in 2016 after gaining Observer status in 2002.
      • India also helped design LHC components such as superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, and accelerator protection systems.

    About the ALICE Experiment:

    • ALICE is designed to study heavy-ion collisions, mainly using lead atoms.
    • Objective: It recreates matter similar to that formed just after the Big Bang, helping us understand the early universe.
    • Detection Range: ALICE can study both large particle blasts and rare, low-energy events with high precision.
    • Size and Setup: It weighs 10,000 tons, measures 26 × 16 × 16 metres, and sits 56 metres underground.
    • Members: As of 2024, ALICE includes over 1,900 scientists from 174 institutes across 39 countries, including India.
    • India’s Contribution: Key instruments like the Photon Multiplicity Detector for ALICE and the Hadron Outer Calorimeter for CMS.

     

    [UPSC 2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

    Options: (a) European Space Agency (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research* (c) International Atomic Energy Agency (d) National Aeronautics and Space administration

     

  • Asteroid YR4 might miss the Earth

    Why in the News?

    Asteroid YR4, discovered in December 2024 via Chile’s ATLAS telescope, was first thought to threaten Earth but was later ruled out. Scientists now focus on its potential Moon impact in 2032.

    Asteroid YR4 might miss the Earth

    About Asteroid 2024 YR4:

    • Asteroid 2024 YR4 was discovered in December 2024 by the ATLAS telescope located in Chile.
    • It is a near-Earth asteroid (NEA) whose orbit brings it within 1.3 AU (Earth-Sun distances) of Earth.
    • It is estimated to be 65 metres wide, roughly the size of a 10-storey building.
    • Initially, it was suspected to have a 3.1% chance of impacting Earth in 2032, triggering NASA’s highest-ever asteroid impact alert.
    • Subsequent tracking ruled out an Earth impact but indicated a 3.8% chance of hitting the Moon on December 22, 2032.
    • A Moon impact would create a 500 to 2,000-metre-wide crater and release energy 340 times more powerful than the Hiroshima bomb.
    • Despite being smaller than the 140m threshold for “potentially hazardous asteroids,” its unusual trajectory drew global scientific attention.
    • Scientists continue to observe YR4, including during a close approach in 2028, to refine its orbital predictions.

    Back2Basics: ATLAS Telescope

    • ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) is a NASA-funded early warning project for detecting small near-Earth objects (NEOs).
    • It is developed and operated by the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy.
    • As of 2025, ATLAS operates five telescopes in Hawaii, South Africa, Chile, and the Canary Islands.
    • Each telescope has a 0.5-meter Wright-Schmidt design, a 1-meter focal length, and a 110 MP CCD detector with a 7.4° field of view.
    • The system scans 20,000 square degrees of sky three times per night and provides 1–3 week warnings for asteroids 45–120 meters wide.
    • In addition to asteroids, ATLAS also discovers supernovae, comets, dwarf planets, and variable stars.

     

    [UPSC 2011] Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options:  (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Gold’s Cosmic Origins from Magnetar Flares

    Why in the News?

    A new study by Columbia University, suggests that the universe may have an alternate mechanism for producing gold — not just in neutron star collisions, as previously believed, but also in magnetar flares.

    Gold's Cosmic Origins from Magnetar Flares

    What are Magnetars?

    • Magnetars are a rare type of neutron star with immensely strong magnetic fields, among the most powerful in the universe.
    • They are formed when a massive star collapses during a supernova, leaving a highly dense stellar core.
    • Due to magnetic instability, magnetars sometimes release intense flares of X-rays and gamma rays.
    • These flares can be millions of times stronger than typical solar flares.
    • A magnetar’s magnetic field is estimated to be about a thousand times stronger than that of ordinary neutron stars.

    r-Process in a Magnetar Flare:

    • The r-process (rapid neutron-capture process) forms heavy elements like gold, platinum, and uranium by rapidly attaching neutrons to atomic nuclei.
    • It was earlier believed to occur mainly in neutron star mergers.
    • In a 2024 study, scientists analysed a 2004 magnetar flare followed by delayed gamma-ray emissions, recorded by NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
    • The radiation patterns matched those of radioactive decay from r-process elements, suggesting neutron-rich nuclei were produced.
    • Around 1.9 septillion kilograms of matter was ejected at near-light speeds, marking the first direct evidence of r-process nucleosynthesis in a magnetar flare.

    Implications for Gold Formation:

    • The study shows that magnetar flares may also produce gold and other heavy elements, not just neutron star collisions.
    • This implies such elements could have formed earlier in the universe than previously believed.
    • The findings broaden our understanding of the origins of chemical elements in space.
    • It confirms that multiple astrophysical events contribute to the formation of heavy elements.
    • It also offers a new perspective on cosmic gamma-ray bursts and ancient stellar compositions.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the continued expansion of the universe?

    1. Detection of microwaves in space

    2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space

    3. Movement of asteroids in space

    4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3