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Subject: Science and Technology

  • [pib] Measuring Helium Abundance in the Sun

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have successfully estimated the abundance of Helium in the Sun’s photosphere with precision for the first time.

    [pib] Measuring Helium Abundance in the Sun

    About Helium in the Sun’s Photosphere:

    • Helium is the second most abundant element in the Sun after Hydrogen and plays a key role in understanding solar composition, opacity, and energy transport.
    • However, measuring its precise abundance in the Sun’s photosphere has been challenging due to the absence of observable Helium spectral lines in visible light.
    • Traditionally, Helium abundance was estimated using indirect methods like extrapolating data from hotter stars, solar wind observations, and seismological studies of the Sun’s interior.
    • These methods lacked direct photospheric observations, making the estimates less accurate.
    • Accurate measurements of Helium are essential for modelling the Sun’s opacity and energy transport. This also has broader implications for understanding the composition of other stars.

    Novel Method Recently Discovered:

    • Researchers from the IIA introduced a novel method to directly estimate Helium abundance in the Sun’s photosphere.
    • This technique uses spectral features from Magnesium (Mg) and Carbon (C), overcoming the challenge of no direct Helium spectral lines.
    • Spectral lines from Mg, C, and hydrogenated molecules (MgH, CH, C2) were used to infer Helium abundance.
    • Equivalent Width analyses and spectrum synthesis techniques helped model the behavior of these elements in varying Helium-to-Hydrogen ratios.
    • The Helium-to-Hydrogen ratio in the Sun’s photosphere was found to be 0.1, consistent with previous studies. This confirms the validity of the new method.
    [UPSC 2023] Diffusion of light in the atmosphere takes place due to:

    Options: (a) Carbon dioxide (b) Dust particles* (c) Helium (d) Water vapors

     

  • Role of Lipids in Protein Function and Co-Evolution

    Why in the News?

    New research by CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad suggest that lipids (along with DNA), particularly in mitochondrial membranes, are not just structural elements but play an integral role in the function and evolution of proteins.

    About Lipids and RC1 in Cells:

    Lipids:

    • Lipids, including fats, phospholipids, and sterols, make up to 30% of the dry weight of cells.
    • They are crucial for membrane integrity and various biological processes.
    • They vary in fatty acid composition and length, influenced by genetics, diet, and environmental factors.
    • They form a bilayer in membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing stability and enabling protein function.
    • Role of Lipids in Cells:
      • Lipids form the bilayer, providing flexibility and stability for membrane proteins that perform functions like receptor binding and ion channelling.
      • They like cardiolipin stabilize RC1 and other respiratory complexes, aiding energy production.

    RC1 (Respiratory Complex 1):

    • RC1 is a protein complex in the mitochondrial membrane, crucial for cellular respiration and energy production.
    • It is composed of 44 proteins, some synthesized in the cytoplasm and others in mitochondria.
    • Mutations in RC1 lead to diseases due to its vital role in respiration.

    Lipid-Protein Co-evolution as per new Research:

    • New research highlights the co-evolution of proteins and lipids, especially in mitochondrial membranes, where proteins interact with specific lipids from their own kingdom (plant or animal).
    • Plant lipids, richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more flexible, aiding stress resistance, while animal lipids evolve differently to meet their needs.
    • Lipid-protein co-evolution adds complexity to cellular evolution, with implications for human health and disease treatment.
    [UPSC 2001] Which of the following cell organelles play the most significant role in protein synthesis?

    Options: (a) Lysosome and Centrosome (b) Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome* (c) Golgi apparatus and Mitochondria (d) Lysosome and Mitochondria

     

  • LEDA 1313424: The Bullseye Galaxy

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope recently discovered the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424), which contains 9 rings, an unprecedented number.

    This finding offers new insights into galaxy evolution and the possibility of the galaxy evolving into a Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) galaxy.

    Bullseye Galaxy

    About the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424):

    • The Bullseye Galaxy is unique for containing 9 rings, an unprecedented number in the study of ringed galaxies.
    • Most ringed galaxies typically have 2 or 3 rings, making this discovery significant.
    • The rings are believed to have formed after a collision with a blue dwarf galaxy about 50 million years ago, causing ripples in the gas and creating star-forming regions that became the rings.
    • While individual stars’ orbits stayed the same, groups of stars gathered, forming distinct rings over time.
    • This discovery offers valuable insights into galaxy interactions and the rare formation of multiple rings.

    What are Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) Galaxies?

    • GLSB Galaxies are large, diffuse galaxies with low surface brightness and fewer stars than typical galaxies, making them appear dimmer.
    • These galaxies contain vast hydrogen disks, the fuel for star formation, but their low hydrogen density prevents many stars from forming.
    • GLSB galaxies are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter, affecting their mass distribution.
    • They have less dense inner regions and challenge current cosmological models due to their hydrogen content and low surface brightness.

    Bullseye Galaxy and Its Possible Evolution into a GLSB Galaxy:

    • It shares traits with GLSB galaxies, such as its extended disk and hydrogen content.
    • Researchers suggest that the Bullseye Galaxy might evolve into a GLSB galaxy, providing insights into the formation of such galaxies and the distribution of dark matter in the universe.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:

    1. Light is affected by gravity. 2. The Universe is constantly expanding. 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

    Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in the media?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • What is a Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG)?

    Why in the News?

    NASA scientists have proposed using quantum technology to study gravitational changes on Earth by deploying a quantum gravity gradiometer (QGG) on a satellite in low-Earth orbit.

    About Gravity Gradiometer & Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG):

    • A gravity gradiometer measures small variations in gravitational force over short distances.
    • How It Works: It detects differences in the acceleration of falling objects, indicating the density of materials below the surface, such as hydrocarbon deposits or geological structures.
    • Applications:
      • Oil Exploration: Detects underground hydrocarbon deposits by measuring gravitational differences.
      • Geological Studies: Used to explore subterranean features like minerals and fault lines.
    • A Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG) uses quantum technology to achieve much higher precision than traditional gravity gradiometers.
      • How It Works: Atoms are cooled to near absolute zero and manipulated with lasers. The phase shifts of these atoms, proportional to gravitational force, detect tiny changes in gravitational acceleration.
      • It can detect changes as small as 10^-15 m/s² over just 1 meter, offering much finer measurements than traditional instruments.
    • Specifications: Weighs 125 kg, has a volume like a 250-liter oil drum, and consumes 350 watts of power (comparable to an older Intel CPU).

    Applications of QGG in Space:

    • Studying Gravitational Variations: Measures small changes in Earth’s gravitational field, aiding climate change studies, such as melting ice caps and shifting water reserves.
    • Earth’s Gravitational Field Mapping: Improves understanding of Earth’s internal structure and seismic activities.
    • Dark Matter Research: Provides insights into dark matter by detecting gravitational anomalies.
    • Satellite Navigation: Enhances space navigation and satellite positioning.
    • Mapping Underground Features: Used to map structures like mineral deposits and fault lines.
    • Security: Detects underground structures like military bunkers and natural disasters, offering valuable security information.
    [UPSC 2003] If the radius of the Earth were to shrink by one per cent, its mass remaining the same, the value of ‘g’ on the Earth’s surface would:

    Options: (a) Increase by 0.5% (b) Increase by 2% (c) Decrease by 0.5% (d) Decrease by 2%

     

  • Comprehensive Remote Sensing Observation on Crop Progress (CROP)

    Why in the News?

    The ISRO through its CROP remote sensing framework, has estimated that the total wheat production from eight major wheat-growing states will reach 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025.

    About CROP:

    • CROP is a semi-automated and scalable framework developed by ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC).
    • The primary goal of CROP is to provide a real-time view of the sowing, growth, and harvest progress of crops, especially wheat during the Rabi season.
    • CROP utilizes data from multi-source remote sensing satellites to monitor agricultural areas across India.
    • Technological Components of CROP:
      1. EOS-04 (RISAT-1A): Provides Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data for crop monitoring, especially under varied weather conditions.
      2. EOS-06 (Oceansat-3): Offers optical remote sensing data for agricultural monitoring.
      3. Resourcesat-2A: Used for high-resolution optical imaging, focusing on agricultural areas for precise crop monitoring.

    Key Features of the Study:

    • The study used a combination of SAR and optical data to accurately assess crop progress during the 2024-25 Rabi season.
    • The wheat sown area, as of March 31, 2025, stands at 330.8 lakh hectares, which is in line with the figures reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (324.38 lakh hectares as of February 4, 2025).
    • Wheat production in the eight major wheat-growing states is estimated to be 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025, based on the data gathered through the remote sensing method.
    [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

    1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location

    2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location

    3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • Science behind Uterine Transplants

    Why in the News?

    Uterine transplant surgery offers a groundbreaking solution for women with absolute uterine infertility, as seen in the recent birth of the first child in the U.K. born to a mother who received a donated uterus.

    About Uterine Transplants:

    • Uterine transplantation is a surgical procedure where a woman who lacks a functional uterus receives a donor uterus, enabling her to carry and give birth to a child.
    • The transplant is typically temporary, allowing for one or two pregnancies, after which the uterus is usually removed to avoid complications.
    • Donor Criteria:
      • Age: Between 30 to 50 years.
      • Health: Must be in good overall health, with a BMI under 30, and no history of diabetes, cancer (within 5 years), or STIs.
      • Exclusions: Women with HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or other complications.
    • The procedure requires gynecological transplant surgeons with specific training. A 6-month recovery period is needed before attempting pregnancy.

    Indian Scenario:

    • India’s first transplant was performed on May 18, 2017, at Galaxy Care Hospital in Pune. The recipient was a 26-year-old woman who received her mother’s uterus.
    • In October 2018, India’s first baby was born via Caesarean section, weighing 1.45 kg and healthy.
    • This success story reflects India’s growing capabilities in reproductive medicine, providing hope to women with uterine infertility, offering them an opportunity for biological motherhood.
    [UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:

    Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring

     

  • Coenzyme Q: A Vital Molecule for Energy Production

    Why in the News?

    A recent paper published in Nature by a team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences explored the genetic modification of rice plants to increase Coenzyme CoQ10 production.

    What are Coenzymes and CoQ?

    • Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
    • Coenzymes are organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions, making cellular metabolism more efficient.
    • Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that helps stabilize cells under stress. It is crucial for cellular energy production.
    • CoQ exists in 10 forms (CoQ1 to CoQ10), all present in the respiratory chain within cells.

    Importance of CoQ9 and CoQ10

    • CoQ9: It is found in cereal crops (wheat, rice, oats, barley, etc.), bamboo, and flowering plants like cinnamon, avocado, and pepper. It is rich in daily foods, making it an accessible nutrient.
    • CoQ10: It is vital for mitochondrial energy production. Concentrated in high-energy organs like the heart. CoQ10 is crucial for health, especially in those with neurological issues or age-related deficiencies.
    • Health Benefits of CoQ10:
      • 2008: CoQ10 supplementation helped patients with neurological disorders, improving their health (Montini et al., Milan).
      • 2012: Infants with CoQ10 deficiency benefitted from ubiquinone analogues (Shamima Ahmed, London).
    • CoQ10-based supplements are now commonly prescribed by healthcare professionals.
    [UPSC 2007] Question: Which one of the following is not a digestive enzyme in the human system?

    Options: (a) Trypsin (b) Gastrin* (c) Pepsin (d) Amylase

     

  • 50 years since the launch of Aryabhata 

    Why in the News?

    50 years ago on April 19, 1975, India marked a major milestone in its space history with the successful launch of Aryabhata, its first satellite.

    About Aryabhata

    • Aryabhata, India’s first satellite, was launched on April 19, 1975, with Soviet assistance from the Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome.
    • Named after the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata, the satellite was a significant milestone in India’s space journey.
    • It had a unique 26-sided polyhedron design, measuring 1.4 meters in diameter and weighing 360 kg.
    • The satellite’s faces were covered with solar panels, except for the top and bottom.
    • Aryabhata orbited the Earth every 96.3 minutes with an inclination of 50.7 degrees, and its apogee and perigee were 619 km and 563 km, respectively.
    • Its mission was to conduct experiments in solar physics and X-ray astronomy.
    • Despite experiencing a power failure after 5 days, Aryabhata continued transmitting data for several more days, completing a remarkable 17 years in orbit.
    • This success was pivotal for India, establishing the country’s space capabilities.

    Inception of India’s Space Program:

    • India’s space program began in the 1960s, led by Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of ISRO.
    • Sarabhai envisioned a space program to advance technological and scientific progress in India.
    • Initial efforts included developing sounding rockets under the Rohini rocket program for atmospheric research.
    • In 1972, India partnered with the Soviet Union for the launch of Aryabhata, marking the nation’s entry into space.

     

    [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:

    1. In the year 2006, India successfully tested a full-fledged cryogenic stage in rocketry.

    2. After USA, Russia and China, India is the only country to have acquired the capability for use of cryogenic stage in rocketry.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Recycling Perovskite Solar Cells

    Why in the News?

    Recent advancements in recycling perovskite solar cells have led to a new water-based solution, offering a more sustainable and efficient approach to solar energy production.

    About Perovskite Solar Cells:

    • Perovskite solar cells are made using a perovskite crystal structure, offering high power conversion efficiencies and low manufacturing costs compared to traditional silicon-based panels.
    • They are lightweight, flexible, and made from inexpensive materials, making them a promising alternative in the solar energy market.
    • While efficient, they have a shorter lifespan and contain toxic materials like lead, posing environmental risks during disposal.
    • Used in solar power generation, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems due to their affordability and performance.

    The New Recycling Method:

    • Researchers have developed a water-based recycling solution, replacing harmful organic solvents with a non-toxic approach.
    • The process uses three salts: sodium acetate, sodium iodide, and hypophosphorous acid, to dissolve and regenerate perovskite crystals, recovering high-quality material for reuse.
    • This method maintains nearly the same efficiency as fresh materials, even after five rounds of recycling, recovering 99% of the layers.
    • It promotes a circular economy, reducing waste and supporting the environmentally friendly recycling of perovskite solar cells.
    [UPSC 2014] With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following statements:

    1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direction conversion of light into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.

    2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), while solar Thermal generates Direct Current (DC).

    3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.

    Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?

    Options:

    (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None

     

  • A closer look at strategic affairs and the AI factor

    Why in the News?

    Concerns about an AI arms race and AGI are rising, but research on AI’s impact on strategic affairs remains limited.

    What are the key strategic differences between AI and nuclear weapons?

    Strategic Difference Artificial Intelligence (AI) Nuclear Weapons
    Development and Control Driven by private companies and research institutions (Eg: OpenAI) Developed and strictly controlled by state actors
    Resource Dependence No ongoing physical resources needed once trained Depend on rare materials like enriched uranium, requiring secure control
    Global Accessibility Rapidly accessible and globally developable (Eg: AI in healthcare) Restricted to a few nations with production and maintenance capacity

    How should these affect policy?

    • Focus on Global Tech Governance: Policies should emphasize international collaboration on AI standards and ethics, not just state-centric treaties. Eg: The OECD AI Principles guide responsible AI use across countries and private entities.
    • Regulate Private Sector Innovation: Governments must work closely with tech firms to monitor and regulate AI development. Eg: The EU AI Act places obligations on companies deploying high-risk AI systems.
    • Invest in Civilian and Dual-Use Oversight: Policies should ensure AI developed for civilian use isn’t misused for harmful purposes. Eg: Export controls on advanced AI chips to prevent their misuse by authoritarian regimes.

    Why is the comparison between Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) and Mutual Assured AI Malfunction (MAIM) flawed?

    • Different Nature of Threats: MAD is based on physical destruction through nuclear weapons, while MAIM assumes AI failure or sabotage, which is less predictable and harder to control. Eg: A nuclear missile has a clear origin and impact but an AI malfunction could be decentralized and ambiguous.
    • Diffuse Infrastructure: Nuclear programs are centralized and state-controlled, but AI development is global, decentralized, and often driven by private entities. Eg: Open-source AI models can be developed by individuals or startups across countries, unlike nuclear weapons.
    • Unreliable Deterrence Mechanism: MAD relies on guaranteed retaliation; AI malfunction is not guaranteed nor clearly attributable, making deterrence weak. Eg: It’s hard to prove who caused an AI collapse, unlike a nuclear strike which can be traced.

    What are its policy implications?

    • Risk of Escalation: Using MAIM as a deterrence may justify preemptive strikes or sabotage, increasing chances of conflict. Eg: States might attack suspected AI labs without solid proof, causing diplomatic or military escalation.
    • False Sense of Security: Assuming AI deterrence works like nuclear deterrence may lead to complacency in governance and oversight. Eg: Policymakers might underinvest in AI safety, believing threat of malfunction is enough to prevent misuse.
    • Lack of Accountability: Diffuse AI development makes retaliation or regulation difficult, weakening the policy’s enforceability. Eg: If a rogue actor causes an AI incident, it’s hard to trace or penalize, unlike state-driven nuclear attacks.

    How feasible is controlling AI chip distribution like nuclear materials?

    • Different Resource Requirements: Unlike nuclear tech, AI doesn’t need rare or radioactive materials, making chip controls less effective. Eg: Once AI models are trained, they can run on widely available hardware like GPUs.
    • Widespread Availability: AI chips are mass-produced and used in consumer electronics globally, making strict regulation difficult. Eg: Chips used for gaming or smartphones can also power AI applications.
    • Black Market and Bypass Risks: Efforts to restrict chip distribution may lead to smuggling or development of alternative supply chains. Eg: Countries barred from chip exports may create domestic chip industries or resort to illegal imports.

    What assumptions about AI-powered bioweapons and cyberattacks are speculative, and why? 

    • Inevitability of AI-powered attacks: It’s assumed AI will inevitably be used to develop bioweapons or launch cyberattacks, but such outcomes aren’t guaranteed. Eg: While AI can assist in simulations, creating bioweapons still requires complex biological expertise.
    • State-driven development dominance: The assumption that states will lead AI weaponization ignores the current dominance of private tech firms. Eg: Companies like OpenAI or Google, not governments, are at the forefront of AI research.
    • Equating AI with WMDs: Treating AI as a weapon of mass destruction assumes similar scale and impact, which is yet unproven. Eg: Cyberattacks can cause disruption, but rarely match the immediate devastation of a nuclear blast.

    Why is more scholarship needed on AI in strategic affairs? 

    • Lack of tailored strategic frameworks: Current strategies often rely on outdated comparisons like nuclear weapons, which don’t suit AI’s complexity. Eg: Using MAD to model AI deterrence ignores AI’s decentralized development and dual-use nature.
    • Unclear trajectory of AI capabilities: Without deeper research, it’s difficult to predict how AI might evolve or impact global security. Eg: The potential of superintelligent AI remains hypothetical, needing scenario-based academic exploration.
    • Policy gaps and ethical dilemmas: Scholarly input is crucial to guide regulation and international norms around AI use. Eg: Without academic insight, actions like preemptive strikes on AI labs could escalate conflicts unjustly.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish Multilateral AI Governance Frameworks: Nations should collaborate with international organizations, academia, and private stakeholders to create adaptive, inclusive, and enforceable AI governance structures. Eg: A global AI treaty modeled on the Paris Climate Accord can align safety, ethics, and innovation priorities.
    • Promote Interdisciplinary Strategic Research: Invest in dedicated research centers combining expertise from technology, security studies, ethics, and international law to anticipate and mitigate AI-related risks. Eg: Establishing think tanks like the “AI and National Security Institute” to inform real-time policy with evidence-based analysis.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2015] Considering the threats cyberspace poses to the country, India needs a “Digital Armed Force” to prevent crimes. Critically evaluate the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013, outlining the challenges perceived in its effective implementation.

    Linkage: The strategic importance of cybersecurity and the need for a digital defence force, which would involve AI capabilities. This article will talk about the strategic significance of AI.