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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Scientists create first ‘Pangenome’ of Asian Rice

    Why in the News?

    Chinese researchers has developed a first-of-its-kind rice pangenome by integrating genetic data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties from Asia (similar to the Human Genome Project).

    About the Rice Pangenome:

    • A pangenome includes both the core genes shared by all members of a species and the unique genes found in specific varieties, offering a complete view of genetic diversity.
    • The rice pangenome was built using data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties across Asia, making it the first comprehensive genomic resource for rice.
    • Researchers led the project from the Chinese Academy of Sciences to explore rice evolution and domestication.
    • Researchers used PacBio HiFi sequencing and advanced computational tools to detect variations, uncovering 3.87 billion base pairs of genetic material previously missing from the standard rice genome.

    Key Findings:

    • The study identified 69,531 genes, including 28,907 core genes common to all varieties and 13,728 genes unique to wild rice.
    • About 20% of all genes were exclusive to wild rice, offering potential for trait improvement in cultivated varieties.
    • The study confirmed that all Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) originated from Or-IIIa, a subgroup of Oryza rufipogon.
    • Japonica rice was first domesticated in China, while indica rice arose later via hybridization as japonica spread across Asia.
    • Wild-specific genes were linked to environmental adaptation, phenotypic flexibility, and regenerative traits, offering insights for future crop resilience.
    • Bridging the genetic gap between wild and cultivated rice could lead to climate-resilient and high-yield varieties.

    India’s Contribution:

    • Rice is India’s staple food and the main monsoon crop, grown from June to September.
    • In 2024–25, India produced a record 220 million tonnes of rice over 51,000 hectares, with an average yield of 4.2 tonnes per hectare.
    • The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed two genome-edited rice varieties — Samba Mahsuri and MTU 1010 — known for higher yields and drought resistance; these are currently under testing.
    [UPSC 2001] Assertion (A): Scientists can cut apart and paste together DNA molecules at will, regardless of the source of the molecules. Reason (R): DNA fragments can be manipulated using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligases.

    Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A * (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is fasle but R is true

     

  • BrahMos: the ‘Fire and Forget’ Stealthy Cruise Missile 

    brahmos

    Why in the News?

    The BrahMos supersonic cruise missile has garnered global attention as it was reportedly used for the first time in a combat scenario during Operation Sindoor.

    About the BrahMos Missile:

    • BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India and Russia through BrahMos Aerospace.
    • The name is derived from the Brahmaputra River (India) and the Moskva River (Russia).
    • It is one of the world’s fastest cruise missiles, reaching speeds up to Mach 3.
    • It was first successfully tested on June 12, 2001, from Chandipur, Odisha.
    • It is a ‘fire and forget’ missile, requiring no further guidance after launch.
    • It can be launched from land, sea, air, and submarine platforms.
    • It has been inducted into the Indian Navy (2005), Army (2007), and Air Force (2017).
    • Key Features:
      • Classified as a stand-off weapon, it can be launched from a safe distance, avoiding enemy defences.
      • The original range was 290 km, now extended to 350–400 km, with future variants targeting 800 km and hypersonic speeds (Mach 5).
      • It offers high accuracy, extended seeker range, and 9 times more kinetic energy than subsonic missiles.
      • It operates in all weather conditions, day or night, and strikes both land and sea targets with precision.

    Anatomy of the BrahMos Missile:

    • BrahMos is a two-stage missile with advanced propulsion and stealth capabilities.
    • The first stage is a solid-propellant booster that accelerates the missile to supersonic speed.
    • The second stage uses a liquid-fuelled ramjet engine to sustain high-speed cruise up to Mach 3.
    • The ramjet is an air-breathing engine that combines liquid fuel with incoming air for efficient thrust.
    • It features stealth technologies, such as low radar cross-section and special materials.
    • The missile can cruise at up to 15 km altitude and descend to 10 metres in the terminal phase for pinpoint accuracy.
    • It supports multiple launch platforms, including mobile launchers, naval ships, Sukhoi-30 MKI aircraft, and submarines.

    Key Weapons and Systems used by India in Operation SINDOOR:

    Type Name Features & Role in Operation SINDOOR
    Air-Launched Missile SCALP (Storm Shadow) Long-range missile launched from Rafale jets; used for deep strikes on terror camps with minimal collateral damage.
    Precision-Guided Bomb HAMMER Modular weapon with 15–70 km range; delivered from aircraft to hit mid-range targets with high accuracy.
    Surface-to-Air Missile Akash Indigenous system that can engage multiple aerial targets simultaneously; intercepted enemy drones and missiles.
    Air Defence System SAMAR Rapid-response missile system for low-flying threats like UAVs and drones; bolstered India’s layered air defence.
    Anti-Drone System D-4 (Detect, Deter, Destroy) Uses radar, jammers, and laser weapons to disable or destroy hostile drones and UCAVs.
    Loitering Munition SkyStriker Kamikaze drone that hovers over targets before striking; used for precision attacks on enemy assets.
    Satellite Systems Cartosat, RISAT, EOS Series Provided real-time surveillance and intelligence for target tracking and mission planning.
    Navigation System NavIC India’s satellite-based navigation system; enabled sub-metre precision for missile and drone targeting.
    Anti-Aircraft Gun Upgraded L-70 (Bofors) Equipped with radar and auto-tracking; used to shoot down low-flying drones in conflict zones.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Explained: How Air Defence Systems work

    Why in the News?

    Tensions between the two countries increased as Pakistan launched missiles and drones early Thursday to target 15 Indian military sites. In response, India hit air defence radars in Pakistan, neutralizing one in Lahore.

    What are the three main operations that constitute an effective air defence system?

    • Detection: The first step involves identifying incoming threats like aircraft, drones, or missiles using radars or satellites. Eg: India’s Rohini Radar can detect multiple aerial targets and is part of the Akash Air Defence System.
    • Tracking: Once a threat is detected, it must be tracked continuously using radar, infrared, or laser-based sensors to determine its speed, altitude, and trajectory. Eg: The S-400 Triumf uses advanced tracking radars to simultaneously monitor and engage multiple targets.
    • Interception: After detection and tracking, the threat is neutralized using fighter aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-aircraft artillery. Eg: India’s Akash missile system intercepts enemy aircraft or missiles at medium ranges.

    Why is the suppression of enemy air defence systems (SEAD) crucial for establishing air superiority?

    • Enables Safe Aerial Operations: Neutralising enemy air defences allows friendly aircraft to operate freely without the constant threat of being shot down. Eg: During the 1991 Gulf War, the U.S. first targeted Iraqi SAM sites to ensure air superiority.
    • Supports Ground Forces: Air superiority ensures effective air cover for ground troops, enabling safer movement, airstrikes, and supply drops. Eg: NATO SEAD missions in Kosovo helped protect allied ground forces from Serbian air defences.
    • Disrupts Enemy Command and Control: Destroying radar and communication nodes weakens the enemy’s ability to coordinate defences. Eg: Israeli SEAD missions against Syrian defences in 1982 crippled Syria’s radar and SAM systems early in the conflict.

    Which types of weapons are commonly used by nations to intercept and neutralise aerial threats?

    • Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Fast and agile aircraft used to engage enemy fighters and bombers in air-to-air combat. Eg: India’s Dassault Rafale jets can intercept and neutralise enemy aircraft using beyond-visual-range missiles.
    • Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Ground- or ship-based missiles that target aircraft, helicopters, or incoming missiles. Eg: The S-400 system can engage threats up to 400 km away with high precision.
    • Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): High-rate-of-fire guns used as a last line of defence, particularly against low-flying targets.Eg: The L70 Bofors gun is used by India for low-altitude air defence.

    How do electronic warfare (EW) systems contribute to air defence without directly engaging enemy aircraft or missiles?

    • Radar Jamming: EW systems emit signals that interfere with enemy radar, making it difficult to detect or lock on to targets. Eg: The U.S. Navy’s EA-18G Growler jams enemy radar to protect allied aircraft.
    • Deception (Decoys): They send false signals to mislead enemy sensors, creating phantom targets or hiding real ones. Eg: DRDO’s “Samudrika” decoy system confuses enemy missile guidance.
    • Communication Disruption: EW tools disrupt enemy communication networks, limiting their coordination and response. Eg: Tactical jammers can cut off enemy ground-to-air communications during attacks.
    • Disabling Precision Weapons: EW can block or misguide the guidance systems of smart bombs and missiles. Eg: GPS jammers can prevent guided missiles from striking their intended targets.
    • Protection of Own Assets: EW defends friendly aircraft and installations by masking their electromagnetic signature. Eg: Su-30MKI fighters are equipped with EW suites to evade missile lock-ons.

    Where can surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) be launched from?

    • Land-Based Platforms: SAMs are commonly deployed on fixed launchers or mobile vehicles for ground defence. Eg: India’s Akash missile system is mounted on trucks for mobility and rapid deployment.
    • Naval Warships: SAMs are launched from warships to protect against aerial and missile threats at sea. Eg: The Barak-8 missile is deployed on Indian Navy destroyers like INS Kolkata.
    • Sub-surface or Strategic Facilities: Some strategic SAM systems are integrated into hardened, underground bunkers or launch silos for protection. Eg: S-400 systems are often placed in secure, semi-permanent launch sites for long-range interception.

    What are the different classes of SAMs used by India?

    • Long-Range SAMs: These systems are designed to engage high-altitude and long-range targets, including ballistic missiles and aircraft. Eg: The S-400 Triumf system, which has a range of up to 400 km, is a long-range SAM used by India to intercept aircraft and missiles.
    • Medium-Range SAMs: These systems are mobile and effective in engaging threats at intermediate ranges, typically between 50-100 km. Eg: The Akash missile system, developed by DRDO, is a medium-range SAM designed to protect tactical areas.
    • Short-Range SAMs (MANPADS): These are portable, man-carried systems used to defend against low-flying targets such as helicopters or drones. Eg: The Igla MANPAD, which is used by Indian forces for short-range air defence, can target low-flying aircraft and drones.

    Conclusion: India’s air defence system integrates advanced radar, tracking, and interception capabilities through various SAMs, including long, medium, and short-range systems, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats across diverse platforms.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?

    Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. Understanding how air defence systems generally work (detection, tracking, interception methods) is essential context for discussing the features and differences of a specific system like the S-400 missile system mentioned in the question. 

  • Kosmos 482 Mission

    Why in the News?

    A 500-kg piece of a Soviet spacecraft, part of the Kosmos 482 mission launched in 1972, is expected to crash back to Earth.

    About Kosmos 482 Mission:

    • Kosmos 482 was a Soviet space probe launched on March 31, 1972 as part of the Venera Program, aimed at exploring Venus.
    • It was launched just four days after its twin mission, Venera 8, which successfully landed on Venus 117 days later.
    • The mission’s goal was to:
      • Study Venus’s atmosphere and surface
      • Demonstrate technological and scientific superiority during the Cold War
    • Kosmos 482 was equipped with instruments to measure:
      • Temperature, pressure, and wind speed
      • Atmospheric gases and rock composition
      • Capable of transmitting data back to Earth
    • Venus was a target due to:
      • Speculation about life beneath its thick clouds
      • Its strategic importance in space exploration rivalry
    • Under the broader Venera Program (1961–1984):
      • 28 missions were launched toward Venus
      • 13 probes entered the atmosphere
      • 10 probes landed, but could only function for 23 minutes to 2 hours due to harsh surface conditions
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?

    Spacecraft: Purpose

    1. Cassini-Huygens : Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth.

    2. Messenger : Mapping and investigating.

    3. Voyager 1 and 2 : Exploring the outer solar system.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

     

  • Fracture Discovered in a Cosmic Bone of the Milky Way

    Why in the News?

    NASA has released an image of a fractured structure in the Milky Way’s galactic centre. The feature, named G359.13, was captured using X-ray data from Chandra and radio data from South Africa’s MeerKAT array.

    Fracture Discovered in a Cosmic Bone of the Milky Way

    What is G359.13?

    • G359.13 is a long, linear structure near the centre of the Milky Way.
    • It is often referred to as a cosmic bone due to its shape and density.
    • It stretches about 230 light-years in length, making it one of the longest and brightest features of its kind in the galaxy.
    • It lies about 26,000 light-years from Earth, close to the Milky Way’s centre.
    • For context, over 800 stars exist within a radius of 230 light-years from Earth—the same length as this cosmic bone.

    New Discovery: A Fracture in G359.13

    • Astronomers identified a distinct break or fracture in the structure’s continuous body.
    • An X-ray and radio source was also detected precisely at the location of the fracture.
    • Scientists believe a pulsar—a magnetised, rotating neutron star—collided with G359.13.
    • The pulsar was likely moving at a speed of 1–2 million miles per hour at the time of impact.
    • The collision disrupted the structure, creating a visible fracture.

    Back2Basics: What is a Pulsar?

    • A pulsar is a neutron star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation from its magnetic poles.
    • Though only about 20 km in diameter, it is more massive than the Sun.
    • Pulsars rotate extremely rapidly, some spinning hundreds of times per second.
    • When their radiation beam crosses Earth’s line of sight, we observe pulses of radiation, hence the name.

     

    [UPSC 2003] The time taken by the sun to revolve around the centre of our galaxy is

    Options: (a) 25 million years (b) 100 million years (c) 250 million years* (d) 500 million years

     

  • ‘Kamala’ and ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’ GM Rice

    Why in the News?

    India’s Agriculture Minister has introduced ‘Kamala’ and ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’, the country’s first genome-edited rice varieties, developed by ICAR. These are also the world’s first genome-edited rice varieties.

    About ‘Kamala’ and ‘Pusa DST Rice 1’:

    • Kamala (DRR Dhan 100): Developed by ICAR-IIRR Hyderabad, derived from Samba Mahsuri; shows higher yield, early maturity, drought tolerance.
    • Pusa DST Rice 1: Developed by ICAR-IARI Delhi, based on MTU1010; improves drought and salinity tolerance.
    • Agencies involved: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), ICAR-IIRR, ICAR-IARI.
    • They were created using CRISPR-Cas9-based genome editing, specifically Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1). It has NO foreign DNA inserted.
    • It has been approved by Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBC) and Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) under relaxed genome-edit rules.

    Specific Benefits Offered:

    • Yield boost:
      • Kamala: +19% over Samba Mahsuri (avg. 5.37 t/ha, max. up to 9 t/ha).
      • Pusa DST Rice 1: +9.6% to +30.4% over MTU1010 under stress conditions.
    • Climate resilience:
      • Kamala: Drought tolerance, early maturity.
      • Pusa DST: Salt and drought tolerance for saline/alkaline/coastal soils.
    • Water saving: Kamala matures 20 days early → saves 3 irrigations, i.e., 7,500 million m³ water.
    • Emission reduction: Cultivation over 5 million ha may reduce 32,000 tonnes GHG emissions (20% drop).
    • Food security support: Improved paddy output enhances India’s average yield, critical for 40% of total foodgrain basket.
    [UPSC 2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:

    1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.

    2.GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.

    3.GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • ITER Tokamak Reactor

    Why in the News?

    Scientists working on the world’s largest nuclear fusion project ITER has completed its main magnet system with India playing a key role in building critical infrastructure.

    About ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):

    • ITER is the world’s largest nuclear fusion research project, aimed at demonstrating that nuclear fusion can be a safe, carbon-free, and sustainable energy source.
    • It involves 35 nations, including the EU, US, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia.
    • It uses deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) to undergo fusion at temperatures over 150 million °C, 10 times hotter than the sun’s core, producing large amounts of energy.
    • Its goal is to achieve a fusion gain (Q) of 10, producing 500 megawatts of fusion power from just 50 megawatts of input heating power, a 10x gain.
    • Launched in 1985 and officially founded in 2006, the project began construction in 2007 and is expected to start its operations in 2033.
    • The tokamak is a doughnut-shaped magnetic fusion device used to contain the hot plasma required for nuclear fusion.
    • It uses powerful superconducting magnets to confine plasma and prevent it from touching the reactor walls.

    India’s Role in ITER/Tokamak:

    • India has been a full partner in ITER since 2005, contributing expertise and technology to key aspects of the project.
    • It has designed and manufactured the cryostat, a 30-meter-high, 30-meter-diameter vacuum shell made of stainless steel that houses the ITER tokamak and maintains the ultra-cold environment needed for superconducting magnets.
    • It has developed in-wall shielding to protect ITER’s components from heat generated during fusion reactions.
    • It provides cryogenic systems to cool the superconducting magnets and RF heating systems to heat the plasma to fusion temperatures.
    • It has contributed to developing the superconducting magnets, which are essential for plasma confinement inside the tokamak.

    Note:

    • India manages ITER-India, a project under the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), overseeing key contributions, including diagnostics, power supplies, and other infrastructure.
    • It is also working on the development of a tritium breeding module for future fusion reactors, ensuring self-sufficiency in this critical fuel.

     

    [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

    Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

     

  • Cosmic Clumpiness and the S8 Tension

    Why in the News?

    New research suggests that understanding the “clumpiness” of matter, measured by Sigma-8 (S8) Tension, could unlock key insights into the universe’s structure and complexity.

    What is S8?

    • S8 is a measure used by scientists to understand the distribution of matter across the universe, indicating how “clumpy” or evenly spread out the matter (like galaxies, stars, and dark matter) is.
    • High S8 tension means matter is clumped together in certain regions, while low S8 means it’s evenly distributed.
    • Scientists use S8 to study matter, including dark matter, which is invisible but makes up most of the universe.
    • The measurement of S8 helps explain how the universe fits together and has evolved since the Big Bang.
    • Recently, conflicting measurements of S8 have caused confusion, raising questions about our understanding of the universe.

    Implications for the ΛCDM Model:

    • The ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) is the standard model explaining the universe’s structure, suggesting it’s mainly composed of dark matter and dark energy.
    • This model assumes that dark energy is causing the universe’s accelerating expansion.
    • S8 discrepancies may challenge the ΛCDM model, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of dark energy or dark matter.
    • Possible Implications:
      • Revised Theories: Scientists may need to adjust their model of the universe due to conflicting S8 values.
      • Re-thinking Dark Energy: If S8 measurements don’t align with predictions, dark energy might not behave as expected.
      • New Discoveries: The S8 tension could suggest undiscovered forces or particles influencing matter behavior.
      • Better Observations: Improved telescopes and surveys, like the Rubin Legacy Survey, may help clarify why S8 measurements conflict with predictions.
    [UPSC 2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    (1) It is he world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic km of ice. (2) It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter. (3) It is buried deep in the ice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • New RNA-Based Approach to Combat Plant Viruses

    Why in the News?

    Recently, a team of scientists from Germany reported a breakthrough in combating the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) through an innovative RNA-based antiviral agent.

    About Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV):

    • CMV is one of the most widespread and destructive plant viruses, affecting over 1,200 plant species, including important food crops such as cucumbers, melons, and cereals.
    • The virus is transmitted by aphids, tiny insects that spread the virus as they feed on plants, making outbreaks difficult to control.
    • In India, CMV causes significant yield losses in crops like bananas, pumpkins, and cucumbers, leading to mosaic discoloration, stunted growth, and unviable fruits.
    • The economic impact of CMV includes both direct financial losses from reduced crop yields and the indirect costs of pest management.

    RNA Silencing Methods discussed (HIGS vs SIGS): 

    RNA silencing is a natural defense mechanism that plants use to protect themselves from viral infections.

    Two RNA-based technologies, Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS), have been developed to enhance plant immunity against diseases like CMV.

    [1] Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS):

    • HIGS involves genetically modifying plants to produce dsRNA, which activates the plant’s immune system to fight off the virus.
    • This method provides continuous protection and long-term immunity throughout the plant’s lifecycle.
    • However, it faces challenges such as regulatory issues, high production costs, and the potential for viruses to evolve resistance over time.

    [2] Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS):

    • SIGS, unlike HIGS, does not require genetic modification. Instead, plants are treated with RNA sprays containing dsRNA that targets specific viruses.
    • This method is cost-effective, non-GMO, and can be applied to a variety of crops.
    • However, SIGS provides short-term protection, may be ineffective due to random RNA mixtures, and its effectiveness can be reduced by environmental factors such as sunlight, rain, and soil microbes.
    [UPSC 2019] RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?

    1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.

    2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.

    3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.

    4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only

     

  • DRDO achieves milestone in Scramjet Hypersonic Engine Development

    Why in the News?

    The DRDO Laboratory (DRDL), located in Hyderabad, successfully demonstrated long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.

    About Hypersonic Cruise Missiles:

    • Hypersonic cruise missiles are advanced weapons capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5 (approximately 6,100 km/h), making them 5x faster than the speed of sound.
    • These missiles use Scramjets (Supersonic Combustion Ramjets) powered by atmospheric oxygen, making them more efficient for long-duration travel compared to traditional missiles that carry their own oxidizers.
    • They maintain high speeds and are highly manoeuvrable, making them difficult to intercept by current missile defense systems.
    • They can strike targets at long ranges with minimal warning and penetrate advanced defense shields.

    DRDO’s Achievement:

    • The DRDO successfully conducted long-duration Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor ground testing for over 1,000 seconds.
    • This test advances India’s capability to develop hypersonic cruise missiles, validating the design of the scramjet combustor and the test facility, both crucial for developing air-breathing propulsion systems.
    • This paves the way for full-scale flight-worthy combustor testing, bringing India closer to developing functional hypersonic missiles and enhancing its defense capabilities.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*