Subject: Space Technology

Why in the News?

SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

• The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
• The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
• Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
• Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
• The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
• The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

Features and Significance:

• Unique Orbital Path:
  • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
  • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
• Scientific Research:
  • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
  • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
• Climate Change Research:
  • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.

Why in the News?

The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

About Parker Solar Probe

• The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
• It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
• The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
• This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
  • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
• The primary goals are:
  • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
  • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
  • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
  • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
• The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
  • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
  • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
  • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
  • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
  • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

• Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
• Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
• New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
• Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
• Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.

Why in the News?

The European Space Agency (ESA) officially shut down its Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) Mission, which had been operational for over a decade.

About the GAIA Mission

• It was launched in December 2013 with the primary goal to create the most accurate three-dimensional map of the Milky Way galaxy.
• It sought to measure the positions, distances, and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
• Gaia was designed for astrometry, focusing on precise measurements of celestial object locations and motions.
• Positioned at Lagrange Point 2 (L2), 1.5 million kilometres behind Earth (as viewed from the Sun), Gaia was able to observe the universe without interference from Earth, the Sun, or the Moon.
• Gaia was equipped with two telescopes and a camera with nearly 1 billion pixels, the largest camera ever sent to space. Key instruments include:

1. Astrometer: Measured the location and motion of stars.
2. Photometer: Measured brightness of celestial objects.
3. Spectrometer: Analyzed the composition and movement of stars.

• Discoveries and Achievements:
  • Gaia mapped the Milky Way in 3D, uncovering its shape, structure, and movement. It also detected warping and wobbling in the galaxy.
  • Gaia identified new types of black holes by observing their gravitational effects and tracked over 150,000 asteroids, contributing insights on their orbits and future impacts on Earth.
  • Additionally, it provided new understanding of stellar evolution and the formation of stars, including the Sun.
• Gaia accumulated over 3 trillion observations, contributing to more than 13,000 scientific papers, revolutionizing knowledge about the Milky Way, the solar system, and galactic dynamics.

Why is Gaia being Decommissioned?

• After more than a decade of operations, the Gaia mission reached the end of its operational lifespan, making it unsustainable to continue its activities.
• After over 10 years in space, Gaia’s technology showed signs of wear, and continuing operations became unfeasible.
• On March 27, 2025, Gaia was successfully passivated, draining all internal energy sources. This means it can no longer be restarted or resumed for future operations.

Why in the News?

A recent study published by Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Northumbria University (UK) reveals how Collisionless Shock Waves act as cosmic accelerators, helping subatomic particles gain ultra-high energy and travel vast distances in space.

What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

• Collisionless shock waves are disturbances in plasma (ionized gas) where energy transfer occurs without direct particle collisions, relying instead on electromagnetic forces.
• They are found in supernova remnants, black hole disks, pulsars, magnetars, and planetary magnetospheres.
• They act as natural cosmic accelerators, boosting electrons and other charged particles to ultra-high speeds.

Key Findings from the Study

• NASA’s MMS, THEMIS, and ARTEMIS missions observed an electron acceleration event near Earth’s bow shock on December 17, 2017.
• Electrons in Earth’s foreshock region gained 500 keV of energy, reaching 86% of the speed of light, a huge increase from their usual 1 keV.
• Diffusive shock acceleration (known for producing high-energy cosmic rays) requires electrons to already be moving at 50% of light speed before further acceleration can occur.
• The study identifies how electrons receive this initial boost, a long-standing astrophysical mystery.
• Scientists have long assumed that supernova explosions are the primary source of cosmic rays.
• The recent study suggests that planetary magnetospheres interacting with stellar winds could also contribute to high-energy cosmic rays.

How Shock Waves accelerate Particles without Collisions?

• Unlike in solids, liquids, or gases, where energy is transferred via molecular collisions, plasma particles interact through electromagnetic fields.
• This allows shock waves to accelerate electrons without direct contact.
• Multi-Stage Acceleration Process:
  1. Plasma waves interact with electrons, imparting initial energy.
  2. Magnetic turbulence in the shock front causes electrons to spiral, further increasing their speed.
  3. Repeated interactions with plasma waves push electrons to relativistic speeds.
• Role of Earth’s Bow Shock & Foreshock:

• • When the solar wind collides with Earth’s magnetosphere, it forms a shock wave.
  • The foreshock region ahead of this wave is highly turbulent, enabling efficient electron acceleration.

Why in the News?

ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.

About the SE2000 Engine

• The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
• It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
• The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
• Key features of the SE2000 engine:
  • Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
  • Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
  • Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
  • Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
• The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
• Applications of the SE2000 engine:
  • Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
  • Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
  • Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.

What is the PHTA Test?

• The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
• It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
• Purpose of the PHTA test:
  • Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
  • Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
  • Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
• A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.

Why in the News?

In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

• The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
• The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
• COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
• Historical Context:
  • Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
  • Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
• Subcommittees:
  • Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
  • Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

• COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:

1. Outer Space Treaty (1967):  Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
2. Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
3. Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
4. Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
5. Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.