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Subject: Space Technology

  • Aditya-L1 successfully placed in a Halo Orbit around L1 Point

    aditya

    Introduction

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has achieved a significant milestone by placing the Aditya-L1 spacecraft in a halo orbit around the Lagrangian point (L1).
    • Launched on September 2, 2023, Aditya-L1 reached the L1 point on January 6, after a 127-day journey covering 1.5 million km.

    What is a Halo Orbit?

    • Halo orbits are three-dimensional, periodic orbits around Lagrange points in a two-body system like Earth-Sun or Earth-Moon.
    • It is commonly linked with L1, L2, and L3 Lagrange points, where the gravitational forces of two large bodies and centrifugal force balance each other.
    • It provides a stable line of sight to Earth and the Sun, beneficial for continuous communication and solar power.
    • Unlike typical two-dimensional orbits, halo orbits form a 3D loop, resembling a halo around Lagrange points.
    • These orbits, especially around L1 and L2 points, require periodic adjustments for a spacecraft to maintain its trajectory.
    • It offers energy-efficient positions in space due to balanced gravitational forces, requiring minimal propulsion for orbit maintenance.
    • James Webb Space Telescope utilizes a halo orbit around the Earth-Sun L2 point for a stable observation position.

    Aditya-L1’s Mission Objectives and Operations

    • Orbit Characteristics: Aditya-L1 is in a periodic halo orbit around L1, approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, with an orbital period of about 177.86 days.
    • Mission Life and Goals: With a mission life of five years, Aditya-L1 aims to study the sun’s photosphere, chromosphere, and corona, along with in-situ studies of particles and fields at L1.
    • Continuous Solar Observation: The satellite’s position allows for uninterrupted solar observation, crucial for understanding solar activities and space weather dynamics.

    Understanding Lagrange Points and L1

    • Lagrange Points Explained: Lagrange Points are positions in space where a small object can maintain its position relative to two larger bodies due to the gravitational balance.
    • L1 Point Advantage: The L1 point, located about 1.5 million km from Earth, offers continuous solar viewing without occultation or eclipse, providing a strategic advantage for solar observation.

    Aditya-L1’s Journey Timeline

    • Launch and Initial Orbits: Following its launch, ISTRAC conducted four earth-bound maneuvers to position Aditya-L1 in progressively higher orbits.
    • Trans-Lagrangian1 Insertion: The spacecraft underwent a crucial manoeuvre on September 19, marking the start of its 110-day journey to L1.

    Why Study the Sun?

    • Understanding Solar Dynamics: Studying the sun is crucial for comprehending its energy production, temperature variations, and radiation emissions.
    • Monitoring Solar Activities: Continuous monitoring of solar flares and coronal mass ejections is vital for predicting space weather and mitigating its impact on space-reliant technologies.

    Conclusion

    • Unprecedented Solar Study: Aditya-L1’s unique position and advanced instruments enable an unparalleled study of the sun, contributing significantly to our understanding of solar phenomena.
    • ISRO’s Achievement: This successful mission underscores ISRO’s expertise in navigating complex space missions and reinforces India’s position as a leading player in space exploration and research.

  • ISRO Successfully Tests Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell in Space

    Fuel Cell

    Introduction

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully tested a 100 W class Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell based Power System (FCPS) in space.
    • The FCPS was part of the POEM3 orbital platform, launched onboard PSLV-C58 on January 1, 2024.

    About FCPS Experiment

    • Primary Goal: The experiment aimed to assess the operation of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel cells in space and gather data for future mission designs.
    • Power Generation: During the test, 180 W power was generated using Hydrogen and Oxygen gases, providing valuable data on the performance of the power system.

    About Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells

    Details
    Basic Principle Converts chemical energy from hydrogen into electrical energy, producing water and heat as byproducts.
    Key Components Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA)

    Platinum-based catalyst

    Gas Diffusion Layers (GDLs)

    Bipolar Plates
    Operation Hydrogen Oxidation: At the anode, hydrogen molecules (H2) are split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-).

    Proton Conduction: The PEM allows only protons to pass through to the cathode, blocking electrons.

    Electron Flow: Electrons travel through an external circuit to the cathode, creating an electric current.

    Oxygen Reduction: At the cathode, oxygen molecules (O2) from the air combine with the protons and electrons to form water (H2O).

    Heat Production: The reaction generates heat, which can be used for heating purposes in some applications.
    Types of Membranes Perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes (common)

    Hydrocarbon-based membranes (alternative)
    Advantages High power density

    Low operating temperatures (60-80°C)

    Zero emissions with pure hydrogen

    Applications in Space and Society

    • Multipurpose Space Use: Fuel cells are particularly suitable for human space missions, providing essential power, water, and heat from a single system.
    • Societal Benefits: They have significant potential for societal applications, including as replacements for conventional vehicle engines and in standby power systems.
    • Advantages over Batteries: Fuel cells offer range and refuelling times comparable to conventional engines and are expected to enable emission-free transportation.

  • Cabinet approves Prithvi Vigyan Scheme for Earth Sciences

    prithvi

    Introduction

    • The Union Cabinet, led by Prime Minister, has sanctioned the “Prithvi Vigyan (Prithvi)” scheme, a significant project of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
    • With a budget of Rs 4,797 crore, the scheme is planned for the period from 2021 to 2026.

    About Prithvi Vigyan Scheme

    • Consolidation of Programs: The Prithvi scheme unifies five existing sub-schemes:
    1. Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS),
    2. Ocean Services, Modelling Application, Resources and Technology (O-SMART),
    3. Polar Science and Cryosphere Research (PACER),
    4. Seismology and Geosciences (SAGE),
    5. Research, Education, Training and Outreach (REACHOUT).
    • Aim: This integration is designed to enhance our understanding of Earth’s systems and apply scientific knowledge for societal, environmental, and economic benefits.

    Objectives and Focus Areas  

    • Comprehensive Observations: The scheme emphasizes long-term monitoring across the atmosphere, ocean, geosphere, cryosphere, and solid earth to track Earth System’s vital signs and changes.
    • Development of Predictive Models: It focuses on creating models for weather, ocean, and climate hazards and advancing climate change science.
    • Exploration Initiatives: Exploration of Polar Regions and high seas is a key aspect, aiming to discover new phenomena and resources.
    • Technological Advancements: The scheme also stresses the development of technology for the sustainable exploitation of oceanic resources for societal applications.

    Role of the Ministry of Earth Sciences

    • Provision of Critical Services: The Ministry is responsible for delivering crucial services related to weather, climate, ocean and coastal states, hydrology, seismology, and natural hazards.
    • Support in Disaster Management: These services are essential for issuing forecasts and warnings for natural disasters, thereby aiding in disaster preparedness and risk mitigation.

    Holistic Approach to Earth System Sciences

    • Broad Scope of Study: Earth System Sciences involve studying the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere, and their complex interactions.
    • Integrated Research Efforts: The Prithvi scheme aims to address these components comprehensively, enhancing understanding and providing reliable services for India.

    Impact and Future Prospects

    • Addressing Major Challenges: The scheme’s integrated research and development efforts will tackle significant challenges in various fields like weather, climate, oceanography, cryospheric studies, and seismology.
    • Harnessing Resources Sustainably: It explores sustainable methods to utilize both living and non-living resources, contributing to national development and environmental conservation.

  • [pib] India to participate in Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project    

    square kilometer array ska

    Introduction

    • India will contribute Rs 1,250 crore to the multinational Square Kilometer Array (SKA) project, a significant international astronomical collaboration.

    Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project: An Overview

    • Construction Phases: The SKA project is being built in two phases, with the first phase (SKA1) having commenced in December 2022.
    • Project’s Headquarters: The SKA project is headquartered at the Jodrell Bank Observatory in the UK.
    • Site Location: It involves constructing telescope arrays in Australia and South Africa, aiming to map galaxies and explore the universe with unprecedented detail.
    • Operational Timeline: SKA1 is expected to begin operations by 2029.

    Design and Features of the SKA Telescopes

    • Array Composition: The SKA will consist of 197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa and 131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia.
    • Antennae Design: The design includes parabolic dishes and dipole antennae capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.
    • Spatial Arrangement: The dishes and antennae will be strategically placed over large areas to calibrate the origin of observed signals effectively.

    Global Collaboration in the SKA Project

    • Consortium Members: The SKA Observatory (SKAO) includes 16 member countries, such as Australia, South Africa, Canada, China, India, Japan, and several European nations.
    • Frequency Range: The South African array will focus on mid-frequency signals, while the Australian telescope will cover low-frequency ranges.
    • Expansion Plans: Additional dishes are planned in neighbouring African countries to enhance the project’s data triangulation and resolution capabilities.

    Scientific Objectives of the SKA

    • Exploring the Universe: The SKA will observe and map galaxies at the edge of the observable universe, providing insights into galaxy formation and evolution.
    • Studying the ‘Dark Ages’: The telescope will delve into the early universe’s ‘Dark Ages’ and investigate phenomena like dark matter and dark energy.
    • Search for Extraterrestrial Life: The SKA will also contribute to the search for life beyond Earth by examining habitable zones around stars.

    India’s Role  

    • Pathfinder Research Partner: India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), is a key partner in the project.
    • Consortium Involvement: The SKA India consortium comprises over 20 colleges and universities across India, contributing to various aspects of the project.

  • Space Missions to Watch in 2024

    space

    Introduction

    • 2023 Milestones: NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission returned a sample from an asteroid, and India’s Chandrayaan-3 explored the lunar South Pole.
    • 2024 Prospects: The year is set to be thrilling for space exploration, with several missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services targeting the moon.

    Key Missions to Follow in 2024

    [1] Europa Clipper: Unveiling Jupiter’s Moon

    • Mission Overview: NASA’s Europa Clipper aims to explore Europa, one of Jupiter’s largest moons, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
    • Scientific Goals: The mission will conduct close flybys to study Europa’s ice shell, geology, and subsurface ocean, seeking signs of habitability.
    • Launch Window: Scheduled for October 10, 2024, with 21 days, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket.

    [2] Artemis II: Human Return to the Moon

    • Program Background: Artemis II is part of NASA’s Artemis program, aiming to send humans back to the moon and establish a sustained presence for future Mars missions.
    • Mission Details: Artemis II will carry four astronauts on a 10-day mission orbiting the Moon, building upon the uncrewed Artemis I mission.
    • Launch Timeline: Planned for as early as November 2024, with potential delays to 2025.

    [3] VIPER: Searching for Lunar Water

    • Mission Purpose: VIPER, a golf cart-sized rover, will explore the moon’s south pole to search for water and other volatiles.
    • Technical Challenges: The mission will navigate extreme lunar temperatures and shadowed regions during its 100-day mission.
    • Launch Schedule: Set for November 2024, following a delay for additional lander system tests.

    [4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1: Water Mapping and Drilling

    • SIMPLEx Missions: As part of NASA’s low-cost planetary missions, Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology.
    • Launch Dependencies: Both missions are secondary payloads, with their launch timing contingent on the readiness of primary payloads.

    [5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

    • Mission Focus: MMX aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin and collect a sample from Phobos.
    • Scientific Objectives: The mission will spend three years conducting science operations around Mars and its moons.
    • Launch Plan: Scheduled for around September 2024.

    [6] ESA’s Hera Mission: Asteroid Defense Study

    • Mission Context: Hera will follow up on NASA’s DART mission to the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, where DART tested the kinetic impact technique for planetary defense.
    • Research Goals: Hera will study the physical properties of the asteroids and assess the impact of the DART collision.
    • Launch and Arrival: Set for October 2024, with arrival at the asteroid system expected in late 2026.

  • Crucial Role of Karman Line in Space Defense Strategies

    Introduction

    • The Karman line, the theoretical boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space, plays a crucial role in space defense and satellite communications.

    Understanding the Karman Line

    • The Karman Line is an abstract boundary positioned at an altitude of 100 kilometers above sea level.
    • Its primary function is to establish the separation between Earth’s atmosphere and the vast expanse of space.
    • Although not universally accepted by all scientists and space explorers, the majority of countries and space organizations acknowledge this demarcation.
    • It was formally established in 1960s by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI), a body responsible for record-keeping.
    • Crossing the Karman Line designates an individual as an astronaut.

    Potential Threats from Dominating the Karman Line

    • Anti-Satellite Weapons: Control over the Karman line could enable adversaries to deploy weapons targeting satellites, disrupting communication links.
    • Jamming and Interference: Adversaries might use systems to disrupt satellite communications, causing blackouts or degraded performance.
    • Hacking and Cyber-attacks: Unauthorized access to satellite systems could lead to data breaches or manipulation of communication signals.
    • Physical Interception or Tampering: The ability to physically reach satellites could allow adversaries to alter orbits, damage components, or eavesdrop on communications.
    • Space Debris and Kinetic Kill Vehicles: Creating debris or deploying kinetic kill vehicles could disrupt satellite networks.
    • Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Weapons: EMPs could damage satellite electronics, rendering them inoperable.
    • Denial of Access to Space: Dominating the Karman line could enable adversaries to deny space access to certain countries or entities.
    • Spoofing and Deception: Manipulating satellite communication signals could mislead or deceive users.
    • Space-based Cyber-Physical Attacks: Combining cyber and physical methods could disrupt or manipulate satellite operations.
    • Policy and Regulatory Challenges: Dominance could lead to geopolitical challenges and affect international agreements related to space activities.

    Historical Context and Recent Developments

    • First Breach by V-2 Missile: On June 20, 1944, the V-2 became the first object to breach the Karman line, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.
    • Superpower Dominance: Both the United States and the Soviet Union have historically sought to dominate space for military and reconnaissance purposes, leading to the development of anti-satellite weapons and ballistic missiles.

    India’s Evolving Space Program

    • Shift in Focus: India’s space program has transitioned from a developmental focus to incorporating space for national security objectives, particularly in response to China’s counter-space capabilities.
    • Military and Security Considerations: India’s approach now includes robust launch capabilities, military satellites, and an emphasis on self-reliance and situational awareness.

    Conclusion

    • Strategic Importance: The Karman line’s significance extends beyond scientific understanding to encompass crucial defense strategies in space.
    • Need for Vigilance and Cooperation: Nations must protect their space-based assets and collaborate internationally to address the multifaceted threats associated with dominating this critical boundary.
    • Future of Space Defense: As space becomes increasingly contested, understanding and securing the Karman line is vital for maintaining and defending capabilities in outer space.

  • Meet ISRO’s new X-ray eye in the sky

    What is XpoSat? When will it be launched? - Quora

    Central idea 

    ISRO’s successful launch of XPoSat, an X-ray Polarimeter Satellite, marks a significant milestone for Indian astronomers. The indigenous instrument, POLIX, built at Raman Research Institute, aims to study X-ray polarization and unravel the mysteries of celestial magnetic fields, particularly around pulsars and black holes. This achievement highlights India’s growing prowess in space exploration and contributes to the global understanding of cosmic phenomena.

    Key Highlights:

    • ISRO successfully launched XPoSat, an X-ray Polarimeter Satellite, on New Year’s Day in 2024.
    • The indigenous instrument, POLIX, built at Raman Research Institute, is a crucial step for Indian astronomers.
    • POLIX aims to study X-ray polarization, providing insights into celestial magnetic fields.

    Key Challenges:

    • Collecting X-rays from space is challenging due to their high energy, making traditional focusing methods impossible.
    • Earth’s atmosphere absorbs most X-rays, complicating the study of cosmic X-rays.

    Key Terms and Phrases:

    • XPoSat: X-ray Polarimeter Satellite.
    • POLIX: Indian X-ray Polarimeter.
    • Pulsars: Exotic stars emitting X-rays with strong magnetic fields.
    • IXPE: NASA’s X-ray Polarimeter Explorer.
    • XSPECT: Instrument on XPoSat for studying timing and spectral properties.

    Key Quotes:

    • “The instrument, totally indigenous in design and fabrication, will herald yet another milestone for Indian astronomers.”
    • “Measuring the polarisation of X-rays would enable astronomers to gauge the directions of magnetic fields in celestial objects.”

    Key Statements:

    • POLIX, a cubical cylinder with a beryllium disc, detects X-rays and works on the principle of polarization after scattering.
    • XPoSat, complementing NASA’s IXPE, will provide valuable information about pulsars and black holes.

    Key Examples and References:

    • Pulsars, city-sized stars with immense mass, often shine in X-rays and have powerful magnetic fields.
    • POLIX’s beryllium disc allows the probing of lower energy X-rays compared to NASA’s instrument.

    Key Facts and Data:

    • POLIX measures roughly half a meter and weighs nearly 200 kilograms.
    • XPoSat focuses on studying the timing and spectral properties of X-ray-emitting objects.

    Critical Analysis:

    • POLIX’s unique design using beryllium enhances the detection of lower-energy X-rays, providing a significant advantage.
    • The launch of XPoSat signifies a major advancement in Indian X-ray astronomy, offering a valuable complement to NASA’s efforts.

    Way Forward:

    • Anticipation surrounds XPoSat’s data collection, expected to deepen our understanding of pulsars and black holes.
    • Ongoing collaboration and advancements in X-ray astronomy will likely lead to further discoveries.

  • ISRO launches X-Ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) Mission

    Central Idea

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation has rang in the new year with the launch of the PSLV-C58 X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) mission on January 1, 2024.

    About XPoSat Mission

    • Orbital Details: XPoSat will operate in a Low Earth Orbit at an altitude of about 650 km, with a low inclination of around 6 degrees.
    • Dual Scientific Payloads: The satellite is equipped with two payloads, enabling comprehensive studies of X-ray sources, including their temporal, spectral, and polarization characteristics.
    • Mission Goals: XPoSat’s primary objectives include measuring X-ray polarization in the 8-30 keV energy band and conducting long-term studies in the 0.8-15 keV band.
    • Mission Lifespan: The satellite is expected to be operational for approximately 5 years.
    • Observation Strategy: Observations by XPoSat will primarily occur during the Earth’s eclipse period to maximize efficiency.

    Payloads aboard XPoSat

    • POLIX – Primary Payload: The Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX), developed by Bengaluru’s Raman Research Institute (RRI) with ISRO’s collaboration, is tailored to assess the degree and angle of polarization in medium X-ray energy ranges.
    • XSPECT – Secondary Payload: The X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing (XSPECT) payload, created by ISRO’s U.R. Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), will gather spectroscopic data in the 0.8-15 keV range.

    Significance of XPoSat

    • Polarization refers to the orientation of light waves. X-rays, a form of electromagnetic radiation, can also be polarized.
    • Studying it from cosmic sources provides valuable information about the physical conditions and processes occurring in extreme environments, such as around black holes, neutron stars, and supernova remnants.

  • Japan’s Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) Mission

    slim

    Central Idea

    • Japan’s Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) spacecraft successfully entered lunar orbit on December 25, ahead of its planned moon landing on January 19.
    • If successful, Japan will join an elite group of nations to achieve a soft lunar landing, following India’s Chandrayaan 3 mission in August.

    SLIM: An Overview

    • Launch and Design: Launched by JAXA on September 7, 2023, SLIM is a lightweight spacecraft, weighing only 590 kg, compared to Chandrayaan 3’s 3,900 kg.
    • Mission Objectives: SLIM aims to demonstrate precise lunar landing capabilities, targeting a landing within 100 meters of its chosen site near the Shioli Crater.

    Journey to the Moon

    • Fuel-Efficient Trajectory: Unlike Chandrayaan 3’s Hohmann transfer orbit, SLIM followed a longer, fuel-efficient path based on weak-stability boundary theory, taking four months to reach the moon.
    • Orbital Mechanics: SLIM utilized Earth’s gravity to build kinetic energy, eventually aligning its trajectory with the moon’s orbit for a slower approach and capture.

    SLIM’s Lunar Mission Goals

    • Precision Landing: SLIM’s attempt to land with minimal deviation from its target site sets a new standard for lunar missions.
    • Scientific Payload: The spacecraft will deploy two small rovers, LEV-1 and LEV-2, to study the lunar surface, temperature, radiation, and potentially the moon’s mantle.

    Impact on Chandrayaan 4

    • Lunar South Pole Exploration: Chandrayaan 4, a joint Indian-Japanese mission (LUPEX), aims to explore regions closer to the moon’s south pole, requiring precise landing technologies.
    • Technological Synergy: Technologies and insights from SLIM, particularly in navigation and feature-matching algorithms, will be crucial for the success of Chandrayaan 4.

    Challenges of Lunar South Pole Exploration

    • Rugged Terrain: The moon’s polar regions, characterized by rocky terrain, craters, and steep slopes, demand highly accurate landing capabilities.
    • Water-Ice Exploration: These regions contain water ice, making them prime targets for future lunar missions and resource utilization.

  • Space Exploration in 2024: Key Missions and Scientific Endeavors

    space

    Central Idea

    • The year 2024 is set to be a landmark year in space exploration, following significant achievements in 2023, including NASA’s OSIRIS-REx and India’s Chandrayaan-3 missions.

    Upcoming Missions

    • The year will feature several key missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, along with other international endeavors.

    [1] Europa Clipper Mission

    • Objective: NASA’s Europa Clipper will explore Jupiter’s moon, Europa, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
    • Significance: The mission aims to assess Europa’s habitability for extraterrestrial life by studying its icy shell, geology, and ocean.
    • Launch Details: Scheduled for launch on October 10, 2024, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, with arrival at Jupiter set for 2030.

    [2] Artemis II Mission

    • Program Goals: Part of NASA’s Artemis program to return humans to the Moon, including plans for a sustained presence and future Mars missions.
    • Mission Specifics: Artemis II, following the uncrewed Artemis I, will be the first crewed mission orbiting the Moon since 1972, planned for November 2024.

    [3] VIPER Lunar Mission

    • Mission Overview: VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) aims to explore the Moon’s south pole for volatiles like water and carbon dioxide.
    • Technology and Schedule: Equipped to handle extreme lunar temperatures, VIPER’s launch is scheduled for November 2024, focusing on resources for future human exploration.

    [4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1 Missions

    • SIMPLEx Program: These missions are part of NASA’s Small, Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx), offering cost-effective, rideshare opportunities.
    • Objectives: Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the Moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology, both scheduled for mid-2024.

    [5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

    • Mission Focus: JAXA’s MMX mission aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin.
    • Science Operations: The spacecraft will conduct a three-year mission, including landing on Phobos and returning a sample to Earth, with a launch planned around September 2024.

    [6] ESA’s Hera Mission

    • Mission Purpose: Hera, by the European Space Agency, will study the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, following NASA’s DART mission’s kinetic impact in 2022.
    • Planetary Defense: Hera will assess the impact of DART’s collision and study the asteroids’ physical properties, with a launch set for October 2024.