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Subject: Water Pollution and Related Issues

  • [31st August 2026] The Hindu OpED: Adopt policies for reuse of treated water

    [31st August 2026] The Hindu OpED: Adopt policies for reuse of treated water

    Question (2025, GS3): “Examine the factors responsible for depleting groundwater in India. What are the steps taken by the government to mitigate such depletion of groundwater?
    Linkage: The safe reuse of treated water is a critical step in mitigating groundwater depletion. By directing treated wastewater to agricultural fields (“farms”) and industrial units (“factories”), states can significantly reduce their dependence on fresh groundwater extraction.

    Mentor Comment

    Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand have notified treated wastewater reuse policies built for their own geography rather than on a single national template. Both were framed through an extensive consultative process, and both separate the needs of hill communities from those of densely populated plains. They follow the National Framework on Safe Reuse of Treated Water (SRTW), 2022, which made reuse a stated national priority and required States to frame reuse policies of their own. The tension is that sewage treatment capacity has already been built at scale under the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), the central urban mission that funds water supply and sewerage, and a plant discharging into a drain rather than into a farm or a factory returns no water to the system.

    What is the National Framework on Safe Reuse of Treated Water, 2022?

    1. What it establishes: It sets the national position that reuse of treated water is a priority rather than a peripheral option, which is a policy signal as much as a guidance document.
    2. How it devolves: It requires States to develop their own reuse policies, on the reasoning that water solutions are local even where the ambition is national.

    What makes the two State policies a departure from template policymaking?

    1. Geography is written into the policy: Each policy accounts for the stark internal diversity of its State, treating hill settlements and dense plains as different reuse problems.
    2. Reuse is matched to purpose: Both embed fit for purpose reuse, so water is treated to the standard its end use needs rather than to a single quality for every user.
    3. Reuse is tied to other plans: Both integrate reuse with urban planning and with river rejuvenation, instead of running it as a standalone sanitation activity.
    4. Financing and monitoring are built in: Both carry community participation, blended finance and public private partnership pathways, and digital monitoring systems that make reuse accountable.

    Why does built treatment capacity not become reuse?

    1. A plant without an offtake is idle capacity: National missions have scaled treatment infrastructure, and pipes and plants alone do not close the loop when the output goes into a drain.
    2. Departments do not work together: Utilities, urban departments, irrigation agencies and industries operate in silos, and reuse succeeds only where they operate as one chain.
    3. There is no price signal: Reuse becomes economically rational only when pricing reflects what freshwater actually costs the system.
    4. End users have no assurance: Quality standards are what give a farmer or a factory confidence to take treated water as an input.
    5. National ambition has no local plan: City level roadmaps are what convert a national framework into action by a specific municipal body.

    What is the economic case for reuse?

    1. A supply that does not fail: Treated wastewater offers agriculture, industry, urban landscaping and ecological restoration a reliable and drought proof supply, which is increasingly rare.
    2. It reduces a costly dependence: Reuse cuts expenditure on sourcing fresh water and builds climate resilience into a city’s water balance.
    3. It removes a ceiling on growth: Industrial and urban expansion can proceed without straining existing freshwater supplies, and it supports low carbon urban development at scale.
    4. The case has not been made to the decision maker: Until this computable value is put clearly to State governments and planners, the policy remains an aspiration rather than a budget line.

    What decides whether a State actually adopts reuse?

    1. Money comes from convergence, not new allocations: The financial momentum for reuse targets is unlocked by identifying synergies with already funded schemes rather than by fresh budgetary provision.
    2. Public resistance is the deeper constraint: Misconceptions about the safety of treated water run deep, which is why the national framework and both State policies name treated water Apna Jal, our water.
    3. The shift required is psychological: No document can produce acceptance on its own, and the naming choice is an attempt to change how the resource is perceived before it is used.
    4. Delay compounds: States without a clear reuse plan for water security are not merely behind others, they are running out of time to catch up.

    Challenges to the National Framework on Safe Reuse of Treated Water, 2022

    1. The Framework carries no enforceable target: It directs States to frame reuse policies and fixes no volume any State must actually reuse, so a policy can be notified without a single litre changing hands. Eg. Maharashtra’s obligation to reuse 20 per cent of effluent comes from its own State water regulator rather than from any national instrument. Fix. Attach a reuse share to the consent to discharge issued under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, so the obligation sits on the discharger.
    2. Supply is continuous and demand is seasonal: A treatment plant produces a steady flow around the clock and agricultural offtake follows the cropping calendar, and the storage that bridges the two is rarely built. Eg. Chennai contracted its tertiary treatment output to industrial users in the Manali belt precisely because industry draws a steady year round volume. Fix. Contract an anchor buyer before a plant is commissioned rather than after it is built.
    3. Reuse in food crops carries a health exposure: Irrigation with partially treated sewage moves pathogens and heavy metals into the food chain, and the risk falls on consumers who never chose the input. Eg. The Musi river corridor downstream of Hyderabad has long been irrigated with untreated and partially treated sewage. Fix. Enforce end use specific quality tiers, with the strictest limits for crops eaten raw.
    4. The certifier is also the enforcer: State Pollution Control Boards must certify effluent quality and simultaneously prosecute the dischargers they certify, and they are thinly staffed for either task. Eg. Central Pollution Control Board reviews have repeatedly found a large share of sewage treatment plants operating outside discharge norms. Fix. Separate reuse quality certification from the enforcement function, and staff the certification arm to the number of plants it must clear.

    Conclusion

    The variable that decides reuse is not how much treatment capacity exists but who has contracted to take the output. What to watch is whether the States that have notified policies convert a stated reuse target into signed offtake agreements with irrigation agencies and industry, since that is the point at which a policy becomes a volume of water. The measure worth tracking is the share of treated sewage actually reused, not the share treated.

    Reuse of Treated Water in India

    1. What the activity is: Sewage or industrial effluent is processed to a defined quality standard and then supplied for a use that does not require freshwater.
    2. How little is recovered: Around 28 per cent of India’s sewage is treated and barely 3 per cent of that is beneficially reused, per the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
    3. The resource ahead: Over 35,000 million cubic metres of treated wastewater is expected to be available by 2050.
    4. Why the resource matters: India holds around 18 per cent of the world’s population and about 4 per cent of its freshwater, and per capita availability had fallen to 1,486 cubic metres by 2021, below the 1,700 cubic metre stress threshold.

    Laws and Rules Governing Reuse of Treated Water

    1. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Created the Central Pollution Control Board and the State Pollution Control Boards, and made the discharge of sewage or trade effluent into a water body subject to their consent.
    2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 2024: Rationalised the penalty regime, replacing prosecution for a set of minor offences with monetary penalties decided by an adjudicating officer.
    3. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: The source of the effluent discharge standards a treatment plant must meet before its output is discharged or supplied to a reuse customer.
    4. Entry 17 of the State List: Water supply, irrigation and drainage are State subjects, which is why a national framework can direct States to act but cannot itself operate a reuse policy.

    Government Initiatives for Reuse of Treated Water

    1. Namami Gange Programme: Funds sewage treatment across the Ganga basin, including colony level decentralised plants and the reuse of treated water for irrigation.
    2. National Water Mission: Targets a 20 per cent improvement in water use efficiency, with reuse counted as a demand side measure alongside conservation.
    3. Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority mandate: The State regulator requires 20 per cent effluent reuse, a model NITI Aayog has endorsed for wider adoption.
    4. Water Reuse Certificates: Developed by the World Bank hosted 2030 Water Resources Group, these are tradable permits on a cap and trade model, with higher quality treated water earning more credits.

  • Centre relaxes construction hurdles in Ganga flood plain

    Why in the News?

    A gazette order of 10 August from the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has removed the blanket declaration in the 2016 law that the Ganga flood plain is a construction free zone, replacing the total ban with a stratified, approval based regime. The change exposes the tension between protecting the river’s ecology and permitting development in areas subject only to moderate or rare flooding.

    What is the River Ganga Authorities Order that was amended?

    1. Instrument: The River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and Management) Authorities Order, 2016, notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, governs protection and management of the river.
    2. Original ban: The 2016 order declared the bank of the river and its flood plain a construction free zone to reduce pollution and preserve natural groundwater recharge.
    3. What the amendment does: The 10 August order deletes the no construction clause and replaces the total ban with a regulated system in which some construction is permissible after official clearances.

    How does the new stratified definition of a flood plain work?

    1. Active flood plain: The zone immediately along the channel that submerges at least once every five years, where strict building prohibitions continue, with minor exceptions for temporary set ups such as religious events.
    2. Regulatory zone: The middle band subject to moderate flooding once every five to 25 years, where construction is now permissible subject to clearances.
    3. Warning zone: The outer periphery that floods only during severe events of 25 to 100 year frequency, where construction is also now permissible subject to clearances.
    4. Earlier gap: The 2016 order banned construction in the active flood plain but never defined what active meant, an inconsistency the amendment claims to correct.

    Why did the government amend the order?

    1. Stated rationale: A senior official said the amendment does not dilute standards but corrects an inconsistency in the law between the flood plain definition and the construction ban.
    2. Litigation pressure: Litigants had routinely cited the blanket construction free zone mandate against riverfront roads, embankments and sewage treatment plants before the National Green Tribunal.
    3. Scope limit: The new order does not grant blanket permission for development and keeps a regulated approval process in place.

    Does the change protect the river or dilute safeguards?

    1. The protection case: Confining strict prohibition to the active flood plain leaves the ecologically most sensitive channel margin protected while allowing regulated use elsewhere.
    2. The dilution concern: Opening the regulatory and warning zones to construction reduces the natural groundwater recharge and pollution buffer the 2016 order sought to preserve.
    3. Enforcement risk: An approval based system shifts protection from a clear legal bar to case by case clearances that depend on administrative capacity and vigilance.

    What are the challenges to regulating the Ganga flood plain?

    1. Encroachment pressure: Dense settlement and commercial demand along the river make flood plains attractive for construction.
    2. Weak demarcation: Flood plain zoning requires accurate hydrological mapping that is incomplete across the basin.
    3. Fragmented jurisdiction: Multiple states, municipal bodies and agencies share authority over the river, complicating uniform enforcement.
    4. Climate variability: Changing flood frequencies undermine fixed five, 25 and 100 year return period assumptions.
    5. Pollution load: Untreated sewage and industrial effluent continue to enter the river despite protection orders.

    Conclusion

    The amendment ends the 2016 blanket ban on flood plain construction and installs a three zone regime that permits regulated building beyond the five year flood line after clearances. The government frames this as correcting a legal inconsistency, while the ecological question is whether an approval based system can protect the river’s recharge and pollution buffer as effectively as an outright prohibition did. The next test lies in how clearances are granted and whether active flood plain protection holds against development pressure.

    Back2Basics:

    Foundational Context: Ganga Rejuvenation in India

    1. About: Ganga rejuvenation is a national programme to abate pollution and conserve and rejuvenate the river through sewage treatment, riverfront management and flow protection.
    2. Scale: The Ganga basin covers roughly one fourth of India’s land area and supports a large share of the population.
    3. Institutional design: The effort is coordinated by the National Mission for Clean Ganga under the National Ganga Council, with the Jal Shakti Ministry as the nodal ministry.
    4. Approach: It combines infrastructure such as sewage treatment plants with regulatory tools such as flood plain zoning and construction control.

    Statutory Framework Governing the Ganga

    1. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: The parent statute under which the 2016 River Ganga Authorities Order and its amendment are notified.
    2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Establishes pollution control boards that regulate effluent discharge into the river.
    3. River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and Management) Authorities Order, 2016: Creates the tiered institutional structure, including the National Ganga Council and NMCG, and governs flood plain regulation.
    4. National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: Constitutes the forum where flood plain and riverfront disputes are adjudicated.

    National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

    1. Nature: Implementation wing for Ganga rejuvenation and the Namami Gange programme.
    2. Governing framework: Registered as a society and given statutory backing through the River Ganga Authorities Order, 2016.
    3. Parent body: Functions under the National Ganga Council, chaired by the Prime Minister.
    4. Nodal ministry: Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation under the Jal Shakti Ministry.
    5. Mandate: Ensures effective abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of the river by adopting a comprehensive, basin wide approach.

    Government Initiatives / Schemes for Ganga Rejuvenation

    1. Namami Gange Programme: Integrated conservation mission covering sewage treatment, riverfront development, afforestation and biodiversity.
    2. Arth Ganga: Model to build a sustainable economic bridge between the river and people through livelihoods, tourism and natural farming along the banks.
    3. Ganga Gram: Programme for sanitation and solid waste management in villages along the river.
    4. Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Water conservation campaign that supports groundwater recharge in the basin.

    Key Facts about the Ganga

    1. Length: The river runs roughly 2,525 kilometres from Gomukh to the Bay of Bengal.
    2. National River: The Ganga was declared India’s National River in 2008.
    3. Flood plain zones: The amended order recognises active, regulatory and warning zones based on five, 25 and 100 year flood frequencies.
    4. Dolphin link: The Gangetic dolphin, the National Aquatic Animal, depends on healthy river flow.

    Challenges in Ganga Conservation

    1. Sewage burden: A large volume of untreated urban sewage continues to reach the river.
    2. Industrial effluent: Tanneries and other industries discharge pollutants along the course.
    3. Reduced flow: Barrages, abstraction and diversion lower ecological flow in stretches.
    4. Flood plain encroachment: Construction and settlement erode the river’s natural buffer.
    5. Coordination gaps: Multiple states and agencies weaken uniform enforcement.
    6. Solid waste and religious use: Immersion waste and idol immersion add pollution loads.

    Way Forward

    1. Complete flood plain mapping: Finalise accurate zonation to make the three tier regime enforceable.
    2. Strengthen sewage treatment: Close the gap between sewage generated and treatment capacity.
    3. Ensure ecological flow: Mandate minimum environmental flows across barrages.
    4. Tighten clearance scrutiny: Apply strict, transparent conditions before approving construction in regulatory and warning zones.
    5. Empower basin governance: Reinforce NMCG and state bodies with clear enforcement powers.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] Discuss the Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than incremental inputs?

    Linkage: The PYQ directly connects with Ganga rejuvenation, conservation and the effectiveness of government interventions. The flood plain amendment highlights the challenge of balancing river conservation, pollution control and development pressures.

  • [4th July 2026] The Hindu OpED: Building water security in a rapidly drying India 

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2021] How and to what extent would micro-irrigation help in solving India’s water crisis?
    Linkage: The PYQ examines demand-side water management through efficient irrigation to address India’s growing water stress. The editorial argues that India’s water crisis is rooted in governance and inefficient water use, and highlights micro-irrigation, wastewater reuse, climate-resilient infrastructure, and basin-level water accounting as key solutions for achieving long-term water security.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India is witnessing an intensifying water crisis, with major cities facing acute shortages despite the onset of the monsoon. The crisis exposes that water security is fundamentally a governance and infrastructure challenge rather than merely a rainfall deficit, requiring a shift from reactive supply augmentation to resilient water management.

    What has changed in India’s water crisis, and why does it matter now?

    1. Urban water stress: Cities such as Delhi, Bengaluru and Mussoorie are experiencing severe shortages despite annual monsoon cycles.
    2. River basin distress: According to CEEW, 11 of India’s 15 major river basins have fallen below water stress levels, with several approaching water scarcity thresholds.
    3. Groundwater depletion: Aquifers are being extracted beyond sustainable recharge rates, reducing long-term water availability.
    4. Climate variability: Erratic rainfall is increasing floods and droughts simultaneously, making historical rainfall patterns unreliable for planning.
    5. Water insecurity: The crisis has shifted from seasonal shortages to persistent risks affecting households, agriculture, industries and urban economies.
    6. Urban examples: Delhi, Bengaluru and Mussoorie illustrate that even major urban centres are facing recurring water shortages.
    7. Global context: Nearly 4 billion people face severe water scarcity for at least one month every year.

    Why is India’s water crisis fundamentally a governance problem rather than a scarcity problem?

    1. Infrastructure deficit: Poor maintenance, ageing pipelines and inadequate storage reduce effective water availability.
    2. High transmission losses: Significant quantities of treated water are lost before reaching consumers.
    3. Limited wastewater treatment: Large volumes of wastewater remain untreated instead of being recycled.
    4. Weak planning: Investments are rarely guided by climate-risk assessments or basin-level planning.
    5. Data deficiency: Absence of comprehensive water accounting prevents efficient allocation and demand management.
    6. Limited water endowment: India possesses only 4% of the world’s freshwater resources but supports 18% of the global population.
    7. Water scarcity threshold: Several river basins have fallen below 1,000 m³ of water availability per person per year, indicating water scarcity.

    Why must climate resilience become the foundation of future water infrastructure?

    1. Risk-based planning: Climate-risk assessments should guide investments in reservoirs, pipelines and urban water systems.
    2. Protecting critical infrastructure: Water planning should prioritise hospitals, schools, electricity networks and other essential services.
    3. Localised assessment: Urban Local Bodies and Panchayats require climate-risk mapping suited to local conditions.
    4. Targeted financing: Mechanisms such as the Urban Challenge Fund can finance resilient water infrastructure projects.
    5. Preventive investment: Building resilience before disasters is more cost-effective than post-crisis reconstruction.

    Why is demand-side management more important than expanding water supply?

    1. Wastewater reuse: Treated wastewater should replace freshwater for industrial and non-potable urban uses.
    2. Circular water economy: Recycling reduces freshwater extraction and improves long-term sustainability.
    3. Micro-irrigation: Drip and sprinkler systems significantly improve irrigation efficiency.
    4. Crop diversification: Farmers should shift towards less water-intensive and higher-value crops where feasible.
    5. Risk protection: Affordable crop insurance encourages farmers to adopt climate-resilient agricultural practices.

    Why can technology strengthen water governance only if supported by institutional reforms?

    1. Smart metering: Digital meters improve monitoring of water consumption and reduce leakages.
    2. Artificial Intelligence: AI can detect distribution losses and optimise water supply networks.
    3. Water accounting: Basin-level measurement of withdrawals, losses and consumption enables evidence-based allocation.
    4. Transparency: Reliable public data discourages over-extraction and improves accountability.
    5. Institutional capacity: Technology succeeds only when supported by capable local institutions and effective governance.

    Conclusion

    India’s water crisis reflects a failure of governance rather than a failure of rainfall. Climate-resilient infrastructure, efficient water reuse, demand-side management and transparent data systems must replace the traditional focus on expanding water supply. Water security will ultimately depend on treating water as a managed economic and ecological resource rather than an unlimited public good.

  • Enumerate the National Water Policy of India. Taking river Ganges as an example, discuss the strategies which may be adopted for river water pollution control and management. What are the legal provisions for management and handling of hazardous wastes in India?

  • Discuss the Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than incremental inputs?

  • What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Oil pollution refers to the release of crude oil, oily waste or hydrocarbons into marine and coastal environments due to tanker spills, offshore drilling leaks, pipeline ruptures and port activities.

    Impacts of Oil Pollution on the Marine Ecosystem

    On Marine Life – Oil coats fish, seabirds, turtles and marine mammals, blocking respiration and movement.

    Damage to Coastal Habitats – Hydrocarbons hinder photosynthesis, coral polyp function and seagrass growth – Coral bleaching and mortality.

    Bioaccumulation – PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) accumulate in fish, disrupting reproduction.

    Reduction in Primary Productivity – Oil blocks sunlight and inhibits phytoplankton growth, weakening food chains.

    Disruption of Ecosystem Services – Eg- Mangroves absorb oil and suffer irreversible mortality.

    Why Oil Pollution is Particularly Harmful for India

    Extensive Coastline and High Biodiversity – India’s 7,500 km coastline hosts mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries that are highly sensitive to oil. Eg- Gulf of Mannar and Sundarbans.

    Heavy Maritime Traffic – India’s 95% trade by volume and 70-74% trade by value passes through sea routes.

    Around 170-180 million people live in coastal districts, and nearly 30% of the total population relies on coastal resources for livelihood – Fishery bans post-spills hurt incomes.

    Vulnerability of Ecologically Fragile Zones to even minor spills. Eg- Lakshadweep corals, Chilika lagoon, estuarine wetlands

    Capacity gaps in early detection, containment and coastal clean-up, especially for regional ports

    Food Security Risks – Decline in marine fish impacts protein supply for coastal populations

    Way Forward

    Bioremediation – Eg- use of Bacteria like Oilzapper

    Use of Sorbents to absorb or adsorb oil

    Natural sorbents – Straw, Volcanic ash

    Synthetic – Polyester-derived plastic shavings.

    International cooperation under Marpol convention

    India must adopt advanced monitoring, green shipping practices and ecosystem-based restoration to build resilient, spill-proof marine systems for the future.

  • Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

    River water pollution as significant environmental issue

    Pollution – Eg- 60% of untreated sewage water is released into rivers daily. (CPCB)

    Impact on health – diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and skin infections.

    Faecal coliform in Ganga exceeds safe limits by up to 150 times

    Marine Ecology – Eg- Eutrophication, algal blooms, and dead zones

    Marine Biodiversity – Eg- Bioaccumulation in Fish

    Water crisis – Eg- 600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    Mitigation Measures

    On-site Effluent Treatment plants for textile and tannery clusters to treat wastewater before discharge

    Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) technologies. Eg- Mandatory in Tamil Nadu textile units.

    Install real-time effluent monitoring sensors in industries for instant alerts to CPCB/SPCBs.

    Cleaner Production Technologies – Eg- Green dyeing technologies in Surat textile units.

    Polluter-Pays principles – Eg- NGT orders on Yamuna and Musi industries.

    Industrial Zoning to restrict polluting industries near rivers. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Create riparian vegetative buffers to filter runoff. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Strengthen Monitoring & Surveillance – Use drones, GIS, river basin audits and citizen reporting tools.

    Government Initiatives

    Namami Gange Mission – Focus on industrial discharge reduction, and ZLD compliance. Eg- Closure of non-compliant Kanpur tanneries.

    The National Water Quality Monitoring Programme of CPCB identifies critically polluted stretches

    Environment (Protection) Act – Sets strict industry-specific limits for BOD, COD, heavy metals and toxins.

    Water Pollution Act, 1974 – Establishes the CPCB for planning and regulating environmental matters

    Yamuna Action Plan to clean the stretch of river Yamuna.

    AMRUT & SBM (Urban) Convergence – Expands sewage treatment.

    A technology driven and community driven approach is needed to ensure resilient, pollution-free rivers.

  • Examine the factors responsible for depleting groundwater in India. What are the steps taken by the government to mitigate such depletion of groundwater?

    India’s groundwater is under severe stress due to rising demand and supply mismatch, threatening food security, rural livelihoods, and urban water supply. India is world’s largest groundwater extractor (25%).

    According to a CSIR-NGRI study, north India has been experiencing rapid groundwater depletion exceeding 1.5 cm per year, resulting in net loss of 450 km³ between 2002 and 2021.

    Factors Responsible for Depleting Groundwater in India

    Fertilizer and Pesticide Runoff from agriculture – 56% of India’s districts have nitrates beyond the safe limit of 45 mg/L in their groundwater.

    Energy Subsidies encouraging excess pumping and inefficient irrigation. Eg- in Punjab and Haryana

    Unplanned urbanisation – Concrete surfaces prevent percolation and increase run-off. Eg – Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands (WWF)

    Population Growth – Between 2016 and 2023, India’s population increased from 1.29 billion to 1.45 billion – increase demand

    Climate change and erratic monsoons reduce natural recharge of aquifers. IMD data shows a 10% long-term decline in monsoon rainfall in northwest India.

    Poor water governance (Mihir Shah Committee report) – Eg – CGWB reports show over-exploited blocks increasing from 802 (2004) to >1,000 (2023).

    Outdated legal framework – Eg- colonial-era Indian Easements Act of 1882 grants landowners the natural right to extract unlimited groundwater beneath their property.

    Unregulated industrial discharges and untreated urban wastewater – Eg- chromium and mercury contamination in Kanpur’s industrial areas

    Unsustainable Mining Activities lead to heavy metal contamination and aquifer depletion. Eg- Uranium and fluoride seepage in Rajasthan and Karnataka

    Saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers due to over-pumping and rising sea levels.

    Jal Shakti Abhiyan (Catch the Rain) – focuses on rainwater harvesting and water conservation through the convergence of various schemes.

    AMRUT 2.0: supports rainwater harvesting in urban areas through ‘Aquifer Management Plans.’

    Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020): targets water-stressed Gram Panchayats in 80 districts across 7 states.

    Bureau of Water Use Efficiency – promotes water use efficiency in irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, and industries.

    National Aquifer Mapping by the Central Ground Water Board for conservation planning.

    Watershed Development Component of PMKSY : focuses on rainfed and degraded lands, integrating activities like soil conservation, rainwater harvesting, and livelihoods development.

    PMKSY – Per Drop More Crop – Promotion of micro-irrigation (drip/sprinkler) with subsidies to improve water-use efficiency in agriculture.

    Way Forward

    Demand-Side Management – Use financial incentives to promote efficient water use. Eg – Punjab’s Paani Bachao, Paisa Kamao

    Supply-Side Augmentation by combining traditional and modern methods.

    RWH mandatory under Model Building Bye Laws 2016

    Khadins, check dams, percolation tanks, injection wells.

    Integrated Water Management – Strengthen community-led, data-driven groundwater governance.

    Use of technology – Eg- Biochar for Aquifer Recharge

    Adopting global best practices

    Tokyo’s Industrial Water Law and Building Water Law

    China’s irrigation quotas

    Adopting One Water Approach through National Water Commission (NWC) is essential to achieve a water-secure economy.

    Pollution

  • Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers is a major concern in India. What are the causes of seawater intrusion and the remedial measures to combat this hazard?

    Seawater intrusion refers to the landward movement of saline seawater into coastal freshwater aquifers. It is a growing concern along India’s 7,500 km coastline.

    Concerns Associated with Seawater Intrusion

    Loss of Potable Water – Eg – Chennai, Digha and Saurashtra face declining freshwater availability.

    Saline irrigation water damages soils and reduces crop yields.

    Alters wetland hydrology and harms mangroves and estuaries. Eg – in Sundarbans.

    Raises economic burden on households and municipalities. Eg – Chennai’s tanker dependence during summer months.

    Causes of Seawater Intrusion

    Excessive Groundwater Extraction – Over-pumping near coasts lowers freshwater pressure, drawing seawater inland.

    Urbanisation – Concretisation and wetland loss reduce aquifer replenishment. Eg- Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)

    Sea-Level Rise due to Climate Change – Eg- global mean sea level rose by 0.20 m between 1901 and 2018. (IPCC)

    Sand Mining & Shoreline Alteration – weakens natural coastal barriers.

    Cyclones, and storm surges lead to seawater infiltration in shallow aquifers.

    Coastal areas with sandy soils, porous rocks, or low-lying physiographic depressions allow rapid seawater percolation.

    Absence of systematic groundwater management and poor infrastructure regarding artificial recharge

    Dams and upstream diversions reduce the freshwater outflow that naturally counters seawater intrusion. Eg – Narmada estuary showing increased salinity.

    Remedial measures

    Artificial Recharge – Use percolation ponds, recharge shafts, injection wells, and subsurface dykes

    Regulation of Groundwater Extraction – Introduce withdrawal caps, borewell licensing, coastal aquifer zoning

    Adopt low-water crops and saline-resistant varieties to reduce irrigation stress on aquifers. Eg – ICAR-CSSRI (2022) developed salt-tolerant rice

    Rainwater harvesting to reduce dependency on shallow wells (NCCR, 2023). Eg- Chennai

    Mangrove afforestation for reducing wave energy and preventing soil erosion.

    Ecosystem-based coastal protection– Eg- Oyster beds along the coast can serve as natural breakwaters.

    Mitigating seawater intrusion is essential to safeguard coastal aquifers and advance SDG 6 and SDG 13