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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

Africa is challenging China’s mining hegemony

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

For two decades, China has led Africa’s mining sector, securing vast stakes in cobalt, lithium, copper, and iron ore. Now, African governments and civil society are challenging opaque contracts, environmental damage, and lack of value addition. The old “raw resources for infrastructure” model is giving way to demands for local processing, transparency, and economic sovereignty.

Significance

For the first time in decades, China’s unchallenged hold on African mining is weakening. Nations like the DRC, Namibia, and Zimbabwe are renegotiating deals, banning raw mineral exports, and holding Chinese firms accountable for environmental and labour violations. The scale is significant, in 2024 alone, DRC lost $132 million due to tax exemptions for Chinese companies. These actions could reshape global cobalt and lithium supply chains essential for the green economy.

China’s Long-standing Dominance in Africa’s Mining

  1. Control over critical minerals: DRC produces 80% of the world’s cobalt; China controls ~80% of that output via deals like Sicomines.
  2. Infrastructure-for-resources model: Chinese firms exchanged infrastructure for mining rights, but local benefits have been minimal.

Drivers of the Pushback Against Chinese Projects

  1. Civil society pressure: Groups like Congo Is Not for Sale exposed $132 million revenue loss in 2024.
  2. Market-linked risks: Contracts tied to commodity prices risk leaving nations with no investment in downturns.
  3. Government renegotiations: DRC raising stake in joint venture with Sinohydro & China Railway Group from 32% to 70%.

African Nations Taking Assertive Measures

  1. DRC: Cancelled Chemaf Resources’ sale to China’s Norin Mining after state miner Gecamines’ opposition.
  2. Namibia: Alleged $50 million bribe by Xinfeng Investments; failure to build promised processing facilities.
  3. Zimbabwe: $300 million Huayou Cobalt lithium plant; benefits may flow back to China without safeguards.

Environmental and Social Concerns from Chinese Mining

  1. Pollution incidents: Acid spill in Zambia contaminated the Kafue River.
  2. Biodiversity protection: Hwange National Park coal permit blocked for ecological reasons.
  3. Community and heritage impacts: Cameroon’s Lobé-Kribi Iron Ore Project opposed by NGOs over health and cultural threats.

Policy Shifts for Economic Sovereignty

  1. Export bans: Zimbabwe (2022) and Namibia (2023) banned unprocessed lithium exports to promote local beneficiation.
  2. Retention of value: Policy aims to strengthen domestic processing, but risk of elite capture remains without broader reforms.

Conclusion

China remains Africa’s largest mining partner, but African nations are increasingly asserting control through renegotiations, environmental enforcement, and value addition. If sustained, these actions could reposition Africa from a raw material supplier to an active player in global green economy supply chains.

Value Addition

China’s Role in Mining in Africa (2000–2024)

Scale of Presence

  1. Largest external mining partner: Operates in over 15 African countries.
  2. Dominance in cobalt & lithium: Controls ~80% of DRC’s cobalt output; major stakes in lithium mines in Zimbabwe, Namibia.

Investment Model

  1. Infrastructure-for-resources deals: e.g., Sicomines agreement in DRC (mining rights in exchange for roads, hospitals, railways).
  2. High-value acquisitions: Purchase of mining stakes from global and local firms to secure long-term supply chains.

Strategic Objectives

  1. Securing supply for EV & battery industries: Critical minerals channelled to Chinese manufacturing hubs.
  2. Vertical integration: Ownership from extraction to processing facilities (mostly located in China).

Criticism & Concerns

  1. Limited local benefits: Minimal skills transfer, inadequate job creation.
  2. Environmental damage: Incidents like Zambia’s Kafue River acid spill.
  3. Opaque contracts: Alleged bribery (Namibia) and lack of transparency in revenue flows.

Shifts & Resistance

  1. Renegotiations and policy pushback: DRC increasing state stake in ventures; export bans in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
  2. Civil society pressure: Activist coalitions exposing revenue losses and demanding fairer contracts.

Critical Minerals Geopolitics

  1. Strategic importance: Minerals like cobalt, lithium, and copper are essential for EV batteries, renewable energy storage, and electronics manufacturing.
  2. Global competition: Control over their supply chains influences technological dominance in the clean energy transition.
  3. China’s leverage: By securing ~80% of DRC’s cobalt and significant lithium reserves, China holds a strategic advantage over rivals such as the US, EU, and Japan.
  4. UPSC linkage – Relevant for GS II (International Relations) and GS III (Economy, Technology), particularly in questions on energy security and global trade politics.

Resource Nationalism

  1. Definition: A policy stance where nations assert control over natural resources to maximise domestic benefit and reduce foreign dependency.
  2. African examples: Zimbabwe and Namibia banning export of unprocessed lithium; DRC renegotiating mining contracts to increase state ownership.
  3. Implications: Can boost domestic processing industries but may deter foreign investment if not paired with stable policy frameworks.

Mapping Micro Themes

GS Paper Theme/Topic Micro Theme Example
GS Paper II International Relations South-South cooperation & friction China-Africa mining ties
GS Paper II Governance Resource nationalism DRC renegotiation of Sicomines
GS Paper III Environment Ecological threats from mining Hwange NP permit denial, Kafue River spill

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain

Linkage: While the question is US–China centric, Africa’s mining sector is a key arena of US–China competition. China’s dominance over Africa’s critical minerals gives it strategic leverage in global supply chains, posing long-term geopolitical and economic challenges to the US, a dimension comparable to Cold War-era resource and influence battles.

Practice Mains Question

Examine how Africa’s policy shift in mineral governance could alter global supply chains for critical minerals.

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