Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Assurances in Parliament;
Why in the News?
Since 2014, the Ministry of Home Affairs made 421 assurances in the Lok Sabha and 338 in the Rajya Sabha. However, it dropped about 15% of the assurances in the Lok Sabha and 12% in the Rajya Sabha, which is the highest among all the ministries in both houses.
What is an ‘Assurance’ in the parliamentary process, and how is it tracked?
- An assurance in the parliamentary process is a commitment made by a Ministry or the executive during a parliamentary session, where the government undertakes to take further action or report back on a matter raised by a Member of Parliament (MP).
- Example: If an MP asks about the status of a government project, and the Minister promises to provide an update or take further action, that promise becomes an assurance.
- Tracking of Assurances: Assurances are tracked by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs using the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS). The system keeps records of whether assurances are fulfilled, pending, or dropped. If an assurance is not fulfilled within three months, the Ministry must apply for an extension or request that it be dropped.
- Example: A query about the status of the Adani ports, raised by Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore in 2023, resulted in an assurance, but as of 2024, the assurance remains pending.
Why has the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the highest number of assurances in Parliament?
- Lack of Follow-up on Critical Issues: The Ministry often fails to follow through on assurances related to significant national security issues, leading to unfulfilled promises.
- For example, a question on the state-wise number of terrorist attacks and the number of terrorists arrested and killed, raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal in 2014, was left unanswered, and the assurance was dropped.
- Delayed Response to Investigative Matters: The Ministry often fails to follow up on assurances related to complex investigations. An example is the question raised by MP Asaduddin Owaisi in 2014 regarding ‘out of turn promotions’ and ‘gallantry awards’ given to policemen involved in fake encounters, which remained unanswered and was eventually dropped.
- Inability to Fulfill Commitments on Security Incidents: The Ministry has been slow in responding to assurances related to major security incidents. For instance, questions raised by MP Manish Tiwari in 2019 and 2020 regarding the Pulwama terror attack investigation were not fully addressed, resulting in these assurances being dropped.
Which ministries have the most pending and dropped assurances in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?
- Ministry of Home Affairs: The Ministry of Home Affairs has the highest number of dropped assurances across both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. For example, questions regarding terrorist attacks and the status of security-related investigations, like the one raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal about terrorist attacks, have not been answered, leading to the dropping of the assurance.
- Other Ministries with High Numbers: Besides the Home Ministry, other ministries like Finance, Law and Justice, Road Transport and Highways, and Railways also feature among the top ministries with the most dropped assurances. For example, the assurance related to the investigation of the Adani Group, raised by MP Mahua Moitra in 2021, was dropped by the Finance Ministry despite the promise of further details on foreign investments and SEBI’s inquiry.
How does the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) help in tracking government assurances?
- Tracking and Monitoring: The Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) allows for real-time tracking of assurances made by the government in Parliament. It records and publishes the status of each assurance, ensuring that the government is held accountable for its commitments.
- For example, the OAMS portal shows that nearly 65% of the assurances made in 2024 in the Lok Sabha were still pending as of March 24, 2024.
- Transparency and Accountability: OAMS provides transparency by making the status of all assurances accessible to the public. This helps track whether ministries are fulfilling their promises in a timely manner or whether they request extensions.
- For example, it highlighted the pending status of the assurance regarding the Adani Group’s ports, made in 2023, which has still not been addressed.
What are some notable examples of assurances that remain pending or were dropped between 2014 and 2024?
- Adani Group Ports Assurance: In 2023, Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore asked about the status of government-constructed ports and the volume of trade at Adani-owned ports compared to state-owned ventures. The assurance given in response to this question remains pending as of 2024.
- Investigation into the Adani Group: In 2021, MP Mahua Moitra raised the issue of investigating the Adani Group and foreign portfolio investors owning stakes in the company. The Finance Ministry provided some details but later dropped the assurance, leaving the matter unresolved.
- Pulwama Terror Attack Assurances: Congress MP Manish Tiwari raised questions about the Pulwama terror attack in 2019 and 2020, but the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the assurances related to those questions, leaving the issues without a formal follow-up.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Follow-Up Mechanisms: To improve accountability, there should be a more robust system for tracking and following up on assurances. Ministries should be mandated to provide periodic updates, and a dedicated parliamentary committee could be formed to ensure timely resolution.
- Enforcing Deadlines for Assurance Fulfillment: The government should consider setting stricter deadlines for fulfilling assurances, with consequences for non-fulfillment.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.” [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: Counter-terrorism efforts and the situation in Jammu and Kashmir, both significant areas of responsibility for the MHA. In response to such a question, the MHA might give assurances about specific measures being taken, data on their impact, or future plans.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related delimitation;
Why in the News?
The discussion on delimitation and financial distribution has caused worries in Parliament and State Assemblies, as it could affect India’s federal system, especially with the upcoming end of the freeze on parliamentary seats.
What are the key concerns in delimitation and financial devolution?
- Impact on Federalism: The redistribution of seats may reduce representation for some states, especially those with better demographic management, affecting their political influence. Example: Southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala may lose seats relative to northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
- Population vs. Representation Imbalance: States with high population growth could gain more seats, while those that controlled their population may be underrepresented. Example: The 2026 delimitation may increase seats in northern states, reducing the share of states like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
- Financial Allocation Disparity: The shift from the 1971 population base to the 2011 census for financial devolution may disadvantage states that effectively controlled population growth. Example: The 15th Finance Commission’s formula increased the weight of population (from 0.15 to 0.27), benefiting larger states like Uttar Pradesh.
- Challenges of Caste and Gender-Based Reservations: Any redistribution must ensure that marginalized communities continue to receive fair representation despite demographic changes. Example: The Women’s Reservation Bill and SC/ST reserved seats need careful adjustments post-delimitation to maintain proportional representation.
Why are peninsular States anxious about delimitation?
- Reduction in Lok Sabha Seats: States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka have controlled population growth, whereas states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have higher birth rates.Example, If seats are redistributed based on 2026 population projections, peninsular states may lose seats while northern states gain more representation.
- Unfair Distribution of Financial Resources: The 15th Finance Commission shifted to using the 2011 Census for fund allocation, benefiting high-population states. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, despite better governance, receive fewer funds compared to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, which have weaker social indicators.
- Penalty for Development Success: Southern states invested in education, healthcare, and family planning, successfully controlling their population. Example: Kerala’s high literacy rate and Tamil Nadu’s low fertility rate may lead to fewer seats, reducing their voice in national decision-making.
How did the 15th Finance Commission adjust population weightage?
- Shift from 1971 to 2011 Census Data: The 15th Finance Commission replaced the 1971 Census with the 2011 Census for financial devolution, increasing the weightage of states with larger populations. Example: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with high population growth, received a greater share of central funds.
- Incorporation of Demographic Performance: To balance the impact on states with controlled population growth, the commission introduced a demographic performance criterion. Example: Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which successfully reduced fertility rates, were given some weightage to offset their lower population share.
- Increased Weightage for Population Component: The weightage for population in financial devolution increased from 15% (in previous commissions) to 27% under the 15th Finance Commission. Example: Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, with high population growth, benefited more from this adjustment.
What is the role of demographic performance in allocation and representation?
- Balancing Population Growth with Development: Demographic performance considers not just population size, but how well a state has managed population growth, improving socio-economic indicators like fertility rates and life expectancy.
- Example: Kerala, which has a low birth rate due to effective family planning policies, might not see a drastic population increase but still deserves fair representation based on its demographic success.
- Addressing Disparities in Development: States with high population growth but poor demographic performance (e.g., high fertility rates, poor health outcomes) may receive less weight in allocation to balance out the disparity with better-performing states.
- Example: Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high population growth but relatively poor health and education indicators, may see their representation balanced with the inclusion of demographic performance factors.
- Promoting Equity in Resource Allocation: Demographic performance allows for a more equitable distribution of resources by considering how well states manage their population and its needs. This ensures that states with better demographic indicators, like lower infant mortality or higher literacy rates, are not unfairly penalized in devolution and allocation.
- Example: Tamil Nadu, which has effectively reduced its population growth while improving key development metrics, should be rewarded with adequate representation despite its smaller population size compared to more populous states like Madhya Pradesh.
Which alternatives to absolute population can guide representation? (Way forward)
- Population Density-Based Representation: Instead of using absolute population, population density (people per square kilometer) can be a guiding factor to ensure fair representation. Example: The Northeastern states (e.g., Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland) have smaller populations but are allocated seats based on geographical and density considerations.
- Demographic Performance as a Criterion: States that have successfully controlled population growth should not be penalized; demographic performance (such as fertility rates and health indicators) can be factored in. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which have lower fertility rates, could be granted additional weightage to compensate for their lower population growth.
Mains PYQ:
Question: What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribu- tion of benefits of development on regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? [UPSC 2016]
Linkage: Focusing solely on national population figures might mask significant regional disparities that need to be addressed through differentiated policies and resource allocation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the judiciary;
Why in the News?
Social media has been flooded with memes, and one of the most popular ones says, “For the first time, a fire brigade has started more fires than it put out.” The truth is, the fire is still burning. This perfectly reflects the ongoing controversy surrounding the Delhi High Court judge and the half-burnt currency notes case.
What key issues arise from the Delhi High Court Judge controversy over half-burnt currency notes?
- Allegations of Corruption in the Judiciary: The discovery of half-burnt currency notes at a judge’s residence raises suspicions of financial misconduct and corruption within the judiciary. Example: The Justice P.D. Dinakaran case, where allegations of land grabbing and corruption led to his resignation before impeachment proceedings.
- Lack of Immediate Legal Action and Accountability: Unlike other public officials who face direct investigations, the judge in question was merely repatriated to his parent High Court, reflecting a selective approach to judicial accountability. Example: Justice Soumitra Sen of Calcutta High Court was impeached for financial misconduct, but only after prolonged proceedings, highlighting delays in judicial accountability.
- Opacity in Internal Inquiry Mechanisms: The judiciary relies on internal probes rather than independent investigations, raising concerns about transparency and impartiality in handling misconduct. Example: The former CJI Ranjan Gogoi sexual harassment case, where an internal Supreme Court panel cleared him without an external review, leading to public outcry.
Why has the Collegium system of judicial appointments in India faced criticism over the years?
- Lack of Transparency and Accountability: The Collegium functions through closed-door deliberations without publicly disclosing selection criteria or reasons for appointments and rejections. Example: In 2019, Justice Akil Kureshi’s elevation was delayed without a clear explanation, raising concerns over executive influence and opaque decision-making.
- Nepotism and Judicial Dynasties: The system has been criticized for favoring judges’ relatives and individuals with strong connections rather than selecting candidates purely on merit. Example: The presence of multiple second-generation judges in the Supreme Court, such as Justice D.Y. Chandrachud (son of former CJI Y.V. Chandrachud), has fueled debates over judicial nepotism.
- Lack of Diversity and Inclusivity: The Collegium system has led to an underrepresentation of marginalized communities, women, and candidates from diverse backgrounds in the higher judiciary. Example: As of 2024, the percentage of women judges in the Supreme Court remains significantly low, with only three out of 34 judges being women.
How can the establishment of an Indian Judicial Service help address concerns regarding judicial accountability and transparency?
- Merit-Based and Transparent Selection Process: The IJS would ensure that judges are selected through a competitive examination, reducing nepotism and favoritism in judicial appointments. Example: Similar to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), where UPSC conducts open and merit-based recruitment, an IJS would create a level playing field for candidates from diverse backgrounds.
- Greater Diversity and Inclusivity in the Judiciary: A national-level selection system would bring in candidates from different social, economic, and regional backgrounds, making the judiciary more representative. Example: Currently, women and marginalized communities are underrepresented in the higher judiciary, but an IJS could help bridge this gap by ensuring equal opportunities.
- Stronger Oversight and Accountability Mechanisms: Judges recruited through IJS could be subjected to periodic performance reviews and disciplinary oversight, ensuring accountability and ethical conduct. Example: In Germany, judges are part of a structured civil service system with evaluation and accountability mechanisms, ensuring higher judicial standards.
Who would be responsible for conducting the recruitment process for the Indian Judicial Service?
- Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) as the Conducting Authority: The UPSC, which already handles merit-based recruitment for civil services like IAS and IPS, could be entrusted with conducting exams for IJS to ensure transparency and fairness. Example: The Judicial Services Examination at the state level is conducted by State Public Service Commissions; a national-level IJS could follow the same model under UPSC.
- Supreme Court and High Courts for Selection Criteria and Oversight: The Supreme Court, in consultation with High Courts and legal experts, could frame eligibility criteria, syllabus, and selection methods to maintain judicial independence. Example: The All India Judicial Service (AIJS) proposal, discussed since the 1960s, suggested a recruitment system similar to UPSC but with judicial oversight to ensure fairness.
- Independent Judicial Commission for Monitoring and Appointments: An autonomous body, comprising retired judges, legal scholars, and judicial officers, could be set up to oversee appointments and address grievances. Example: Judicial Appointments Commissions exist in the UK, where an independent body handles judicial recruitment, preventing executive or political interference.
Way forward:
- Balanced Judicial Appointments with Greater Transparency: Establish a Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) that includes representatives from the judiciary, executive, and civil society to ensure a more transparent and accountable selection process.
- Strengthening Judicial Accountability Mechanisms: Implement periodic performance reviews and ethical oversight for judges, with an independent body monitoring judicial conduct and financial integrity.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. [UPSC 2017]
Linkage: Existing mechanism for judicial appointments and the debates surrounding it. The discussion on an IJS often arises as an alternative or complementary approach to the current system, aiming for greater transparency and potentially reducing the scope for concerns raised in the NJAC debate.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to women;
Why in the News?
More urban women have paid jobs but still handle most household work. Though more men now help, the gender gap remains wide. Northeastern states see higher male participation in domestic works.
What are the trends in urban women’s participation in paid jobs and household work?
- Increase in Paid Employment but Still Low: The share of urban women engaged in paid work rose from 15.5% in 2019 to 18% in 2024. Example: In Tamil Nadu and Telangana, about 25% of urban women participate in paid work, significantly higher than Bihar (9%) and Uttar Pradesh (10%).
- Unpaid Household Work Burden Remains High: Despite employment growth, the share of women doing unpaid household work increased from 79.3% to 81%. Example: In Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh, over 80% of employed women also do unpaid domestic chores, highlighting the dual burden.
- More Men Helping, but Gender Gap Persists: The share of urban men doing unpaid domestic work rose from 23% to 28.5%, but women’s share remains disproportionately high. Example: In Kerala and Northeastern states (Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh), over 50% of urban men participate in household chores, while in most states, it remains between 20-40%.
Why does the gender gap in household chores persist despite more men helping?
- Deeply Rooted Social Norms and Gender Roles: Household work is still perceived as a woman’s responsibility, while men’s participation is seen as “helping” rather than sharing duties equally.
Example: Even in urban households where women work full-time, they are expected to manage cooking, cleaning, and childcare, while men engage in minimal domestic tasks.
- Unequal Time Distribution Between Paid and Unpaid Work: Women balance both employment and domestic responsibilities, whereas men often focus primarily on paid jobs. Example: In Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh, over 80% of employed women still do household chores, while men’s share remains significantly lower.
- Limited Structural Support for Household Work: Lack of affordable childcare, elderly care services, and domestic help forces women to take on more unpaid work. Example: Countries like Sweden offer state-funded childcare and paternity leave, reducing the burden on women, whereas India lacks similar support systems.
- Workplace Expectations and Rigid Work Hours: Men often work longer hours outside the home and face social stigma if they take time off for household chores. Example: In corporate India, men who seek flexible work hours for family responsibilities may face negative career perceptions, unlike in Nordic countries, where parental leave is encouraged for both genders.
- State-Wise Cultural Differences in Gender Roles: Some states, particularly in Northeast India (Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh), have higher male participation in household chores due to more egalitarian traditions. Example: In Kerala, 44% of men contribute to domestic work, but in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, men’s participation remains under 30% due to traditional patriarchal norms.
Which Indian states have the most urban men doing unpaid household work?
- Northeastern States Lead in Male Participation: Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland have the highest share of urban men engaged in household chores, with over 50% participation. Example: In these states, matrilineal or more egalitarian traditions encourage men to take on domestic responsibilities, unlike in many other parts of India.
- Kerala Tops Among Major States: Kerala has 44% of urban men involved in household work, the highest among major Indian states. Example: Kerala’s higher literacy rates, progressive gender norms, and a strong service sector contribute to greater male involvement in domestic chores compared to states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where men’s participation remains below 30%.
Why is female workforce participation higher in Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Karnataka?
- Strong Industrial and Service Sectors: These states have thriving industries like textiles, IT, and manufacturing, which offer more employment opportunities for women. Example: Tamil Nadu’s garment industry, Telangana’s pharmaceutical sector, and Karnataka’s IT and startup ecosystem employ a significant number of women.
- Progressive Socio-Cultural Norms and Policies: Higher literacy rates, better education access, and state-driven welfare policies encourage female employment. Example: Tamil Nadu’s Cradle Baby Scheme and Telangana’s WE-Hub for women entrepreneurs promote women’s workforce participation.
- Higher Urbanization and Better Infrastructure: Cities like Chennai, Hyderabad, and Bengaluru provide better public transport, safety measures, and childcare facilities, making it easier for women to work. Example: Karnataka’s free bus travel for women initiative improves women’s mobility, indirectly supporting their workforce participation.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Gender-Inclusive Policies: Implement affordable childcare, flexible work hours, and workplace safety measures to support women’s workforce participation.
- Encouraging Equal Domestic Responsibility: Promote shared household duties through awareness campaigns, parental leave policies, and incentives for men to engage in unpaid domestic work.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation? [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: The gap between men and women in household work shows that equality at home is still missing, making it harder for women to be truly empowered.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Fundamental Right;
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court quashed the FIR against Congress MP Imran Pratapgarhi, stating that even if many people dislike someone’s views, their right to express them must be respected and protected.
What was the Supreme Court’s rationale for quashing Imran Pratapgarhi’s FIR?
- Poem Did Not Incite Violence or Enmity: The court ruled that the poem “Ae khoon ke pyase baat suno” did not promote violence or hatred but instead advocated facing injustice with love. Example: The court compared this to other forms of artistic expression, such as satire and stand-up comedy, which may provoke strong reactions but should still be protected under freedom of speech.
- Freedom of Expression is Fundamental to Democracy: The judgment emphasized that even if many people dislike or oppose certain views, an individual’s right to express them must be protected. Example: The ruling cited how literature, poetry, and films enrich public discourse, and restricting them would lead to a stifled society.
- Failure of Police to Conduct Preliminary Inquiry: The court noted that under Section 173(3) of the BNSS, the police must conduct a preliminary inquiry before registering an FIR for offenses punishable with 3 to 7 years of imprisonment. Example: If the police had followed this procedure, they would have found no prima facie case against Pratapgarhi, preventing an unjust criminal prosecution.
Why did Justices Oka and Bhuyan stress the importance of protecting free speech in their ruling?
- Essential for a Healthy Democracy: The court emphasized that freedom of expression is crucial for a vibrant democracy, where diverse opinions must be debated rather than suppressed. Example: The judges stated that even if many people dislike a view, it must still be protected, reinforcing that countering speech with speech, not suppression, is the right approach.
- Integral to Human Dignity and Fundamental Rights: The ruling linked free speech to Article 21 (Right to Life with Dignity), arguing that without the ability to express ideas, individuals cannot live a dignified life. Example: The court cited the Preamble of the Constitution, which guarantees liberty of thought and expression as a core constitutional ideal.
- Judiciary’s Duty to Protect Fundamental Rights: The judges stressed that if the police or executive fail to uphold free speech, the courts must step in to protect citizens’ rights under Article 19(1)(a). Example: The court stated that even judges may not always like certain spoken or written words, but they are bound by their duty to uphold the Constitution and free speech rights.
Which Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) sections did Gujarat Police invoke against Pratapgarhi, and what do they address?
- Section 196 – Promoting Enmity Between Groups: It Covers acts that promote enmity between different groups based on religion, race, place of birth, residence, or language and disturb harmony. Example: If a speech or post incites hostility between communities, it could fall under this section. However, the court found no such intent in Pratapgarhi’s poem.
- Section 299 – Outraging Religious Feelings: It Covers deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings by insulting a religion or religious beliefs. Example: If someone defames a religious text or practice with intent to offend, they may be booked under this section. The court ruled that Pratapgarhi’s poem had no such intent.
- Section 173(3) of BNSS – Preliminary Inquiry Requirement: Mandates a preliminary inquiry before registering an FIR for offenses punishable by 3 to 7 years of imprisonment. Example: The court noted that the police should have conducted an inquiry first to see if a prima facie case existed, preventing unnecessary criminal charges.
What role did the Supreme Court assign to police and judiciary in upholding Article 19(1)(a)?
- Police Must Conduct a Preliminary Inquiry Before Filing an FIR: The court held that police must verify if a case genuinely falls under restrictions on free speech before registering an FIR. Unwarranted criminal proceedings can have a chilling effect on expression.
- Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): The Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, ruling that arbitrary arrests for online speech violate free expression.
- Judiciary Must Act as the Guardian of Fundamental Rights: Courts must intervene when executive actions violate fundamental rights, ensuring that speech is not suppressed under vague or excessive laws.
- S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989): The Supreme Court ruled that mere disagreement or offense cannot be grounds for restricting free speech.
- Both Institutions Must Uphold Constitutional Ideals: Police and courts must ensure that freedom of expression is safeguarded in a democracy, as it is crucial for a vibrant public discourse.
- Kedar Nath Singh v. State of Bihar (1962): The Supreme Court clarified that only speech inciting violence or public disorder can be restricted.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Safeguards Against Misuse of Laws: Implement clear guidelines for law enforcement to distinguish between genuine hate speech and protected expression to prevent arbitrary FIRs. Example: Mandatory legal training for police on free speech rights and BNSS provisions.
- Judicial Oversight and Quick Disposal of Cases: Establish fast-track mechanisms for courts to quash frivolous cases that violate Article 19(1)(a). Example: Special benches to review cases involving free speech violations to ensure timely justice.
Mains PYQ:
Q Question: What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. [UPSC 2014]
Linkage: The scope of freedom of speech and expression, a central issue in the Pratapgarhi case.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Geopolitical situation of India;
Why in the News?
Earlier this month, Russian President Vladimir Putin thanked leaders, including PM of India, for helping to end the Ukraine- Russia war. This was appreciated in India, but it raises a key question—why doesn’t India engage more in global conflict resolution?
Why has India refrained from playing a more active political role in global conflicts despite its past interventions in regional crises?
- Focus on Economic Growth: India has prioritized economic development over geopolitical interventions to strengthen its position as the world’s fifth-largest economy. Example: Since the early 2000s, India has focused on domestic growth and international trade rather than direct involvement in conflicts like the Syrian civil war.
- Risk of Straining Bilateral Relations: Engaging in conflicts could upset key diplomatic partnerships and economic ties with different nations. Example: India has refrained from directly criticizing Russia over the Ukraine war to maintain strong trade relations, especially in energy and defense.
- Multi-Alignment Strategy over Direct Intervention: India prefers to maintain balanced relations with global powers rather than taking sides in conflicts. Example: During the Israel-Gaza crisis, India condemned terrorism but avoided taking an active role in mediation.
- Regional Conflicts Best Handled by Key Players: India often views conflicts as better managed by regional stakeholders or major global powers. Example: In West Asia, India has significant economic interests but does not intervene like Turkey or Saudi Arabia in conflicts such as the Yemen civil war.
- Avoiding Overstretching Diplomatic and Military Resources: Actively engaging in multiple conflicts could strain India’s diplomatic bandwidth and military capacity. Example: While India plays a crucial role in Indo-Pacific security (e.g., QUAD), it has avoided direct involvement in conflicts like the South China Sea dispute.
What are the key reasons behind India’s geopolitical reticence, and how do they impact its global ambitions?
- Economic Prioritization Over Geopolitical Involvement: India has focused on economic growth, infrastructure development, and poverty reduction rather than engaging in global conflicts. This has strengthened India’s economy but has limited its influence in global strategic affairs. Example: India avoided a major role in the Ukraine-Russia war to protect trade and energy interests.
- Balancing Strategic Partnerships: India follows a multi-alignment policy, maintaining good relations with diverse global powers. This ensures economic and diplomatic stability but restricts India from taking firm stances on contentious global issues. Example: India has strong ties with both the U.S. and Russia, leading to neutral stances in conflicts like Ukraine.
- Reluctance to Meddle in Complex Regional Conflicts: India prefers not to intervene in regions where dominant players (e.g., U.S., China, EU) have vested interests. This often makes India appear as a passive actor rather than a decisive global leader. Example: India refrained from mediating in the Israel-Palestine conflict, unlike Qatar and Turkey.
- Lack of Institutional Mechanisms for Conflict Mediation: India does not have a formal diplomatic framework for mediation in global conflicts. This limits India’s credibility as a conflict-resolution leader despite its historical role in peacekeeping. Example: Unlike Norway’s role in the Sri Lanka peace process, India avoided direct mediation post-2009.
- Fear of Strategic Overstretch and Retaliation: Actively engaging in conflicts could lead to economic sanctions, diplomatic backlash, or military confrontations. This cautious approach preserves internal stability but weakens India’s claim for a UNSC permanent seat and a stronger global role. Example: India has not taken a proactive role in Afghanistan’s political transition to avoid provoking regional powers like China and Pakistan.
Which countries or regions are currently filling the space left by India’s limited involvement in international conflict mediation?
- China – Expanding Diplomatic and Strategic Mediation: China has positioned itself as a key mediator in conflicts, using economic influence and strategic partnerships. Example: In 2023, China brokered a historic diplomatic agreement between Saudi Arabia and Iran, reducing tensions in the Middle East.
- Turkey and Qatar – Active Engagement in Regional Conflicts: These countries have taken up mediation roles, particularly in the Middle East and Afghanistan, leveraging their geopolitical positions and relationships with conflicting parties. Example: Qatar facilitated negotiations between the U.S. and the Taliban, leading to the 2020 U.S.-Taliban peace deal.
- European Union – Diplomatic Initiatives and Soft Power: The EU engages in conflict resolution through diplomatic channels, economic incentives, and humanitarian aid. Example: The EU has played a mediatory role in the Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, facilitating peace talks and ceasefire agreements.
Way forward:
- Develop Institutional Frameworks for Mediation and Peacebuilding: Establish specialized diplomatic institutions focused on conflict resolution, leveraging India’s experience in UN peacekeeping and historical ties with developing nations. Example: Creating an “India Peace Mediation Initiative” under the Ministry of External Affairs to offer diplomatic and humanitarian support in global conflicts.
- Strengthen Strategic and Economic Diplomacy for Conflict Prevention: Enhance regional cooperation through trade, infrastructure projects, and multilateral platforms like BRICS and the G20 to prevent conflicts at their roots. Example: Expanding India’s diplomatic role in West Asia and Africa through economic investments and diplomatic engagement to foster long-term stability.
Mains question for practice:
Question: The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: India’s potential role in the global balance of power and how external actors perceive India’s strategic significance in countering a major global power is an important theme. A larger geopolitical vision for India would involve strategically navigating such external expectations and leveraging its position to advance its own interests.
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC 2020)
Linkage: This question linked with the growing technological reliance on the U.S. in a critical area of India’s defense. India’s future military capabilities might depend on how the U.S. values India in its strategic plans. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s defence public sector undertakings primarily serve the armed forces, making them heavily dependent on state-run manufacturers. The Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative has further increased this reliance, adding pressure on the Indian Air Force (IAF), which is struggling with a declining squadron strength due to Hindustan Aeronautics Limited’s (HAL) slow production. After the IAF chief raised concerns at Aero India-2025, efforts were promised to speed up Tejas Mk1A fighter jet deliveries. A private company recently built the first rear fuselage for Tejas, marking progress. Meanwhile, the Defence Ministry is reviewing a report on the IAF’s requirements, including potential imports.
Today’s editorial examines India’s defense sector and its reliance on other countries. This analysis is useful for GS Paper 2 and 3 in the UPSC Mains.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the IAF chief raised concerns at Aero India-2025, efforts were promised to speed up Tejas Mk1A fighter jet deliveries.
What are the key concerns of the Indian Air Force (IAF) regarding the dependence on Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for fighter aircraft production?
- Production Delays – HAL’s slow manufacturing rate has led to a depletion of IAF’s squadron strength, impacting operational readiness. Example: Delay in the production of Tejas MK1A jets has strained the IAF’s fighter jet availability.
- Over-Reliance on a Single PSU – The IAF lacks alternative domestic suppliers, making it dependent on HAL despite inefficiencies. Example: Limited private sector involvement has only recently started with private firms producing Tejas components.
- Quality and Upgradation Issues – HAL’s track record in upgrading older aircraft and ensuring high-quality production has been inconsistent. Example: Issues with Sukhoi Su-30MKI maintenance and Tejas Mk1A’s delayed improvements.
What are the concern related to reliability of India’s strategic partnership with the United States in the defense sector?
- Policy Volatility and Shifting Alliances – The U.S. has a history of changing its foreign policy based on geopolitical interests, making long-term defense commitments uncertain.Example: The U.S.-Pakistan alliance weakened when Washington’s strategic focus shifted, leading to reduced military support for Islamabad.
- Dependency on Critical Components – India’s indigenous fighter programs, like Tejas Mk2 and AMCA, rely on American engines, creating a risk of supply disruptions due to geopolitical tensions.Example: The U.S. previously blocked the supply of F414 jet engines to Turkey, highlighting the risks of dependency.
- Short-Lived Defense Initiatives – Several past U.S.-India defense agreements have not led to meaningful technology transfers or long-term collaboration. Example: The 2012 ‘Defense Technology and Trade Initiative’ (DTTI) promised cutting-edge tech transfer but failed to deliver substantial results.
How does the SIPRI report reflect India’s position in global arms imports?
- Second-Largest Arms Importer – India remains the world’s second-largest arms importer, reflecting its continued reliance on foreign defense equipment despite domestic production efforts. Example: The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) report (2020-24) highlights that India’s arms imports still dominate globally, second only to Saudi Arabia.
- Decline in Imports but Persistent Dependence – India’s arms imports decreased by 9.3% compared to 2015-19, but high-value systems like fighter jets, tanks, and missile defense systems continue to be sourced from abroad. Example: India imports S-400 missile systems from Russia and MQ-9B drones from the U.S., showing that critical defense needs are still met through foreign procurement.
- Shift in Supplier Dynamics – While Russia remains India’s largest arms supplier, its share in Indian imports has decreased, with the U.S., France, and Israel gaining ground. Example: The Rafale jets from France and MH-60R Seahawk helicopters from the U.S. demonstrate India’s diversification in defense partnerships.
Who benefits from India’s indigenous fighter production, and what risks remain in foreign dependency?
| Beneficiaries of India’s Indigenous Fighter Production |
Description |
Example |
| Indian Armed Forces |
Ensures timely supply, reduces reliance on imports, and enhances operational preparedness. |
Tejas Mk1A, developed by HAL, offers a modern, cost-effective alternative to imported jets. |
| Indian Defense Industry & Economy |
Boosts domestic manufacturing, generates employment, and fosters R&D in advanced technologies. |
Private firms like Tata Advanced Systems and L&T contribute to fighter jet production, strengthening India’s defense sector. |
| Strategic Autonomy & Geopolitical Leverage |
Reduces dependence on foreign suppliers, allowing independent defense decisions. |
BrahMos missile production (India-Russia collaboration) enables exports, enhancing global influence. |
| Risks of Foreign Dependency |
Description |
Example |
| Supply Chain Vulnerabilities |
Dependence on foreign components (e.g., engines, avionics) can lead to disruptions during geopolitical tensions. |
Tejas Mk1A and AMCA jets rely on U.S. GE-F404 and GE-F414 engines, making supply uncertain due to policy shifts. |
| Technology Denial & Cost Escalation |
Foreign suppliers may withhold critical technologies or impose high costs for upgrades and maintenance. |
U.S. sanctions after India’s 1998 nuclear tests restricted access to crucial defense tech, impacting the LCA Tejas program. |
| Strategic Dependence & Policy Uncertainty |
Over-reliance on a single country can compromise strategic autonomy. |
The U.S. restricted F-16 spare parts supply to Pakistan during strained relations, a risk India could face with any single defense partner. |
Where does India stand in balancing defense partnerships while maintaining strategic autonomy? (Way forward)
- Diversification of Defense Suppliers – India sources military equipment from multiple countries to avoid over-reliance on any single nation.Example: India procured S-400 missile systems from Russia, Rafale jets from France, and MH-60R Seahawk helicopters from the U.S., ensuring flexibility in its defense strategy.
- Indigenous Defense Development – India is focusing on self-reliance through initiatives like Aatmanirbhar Bharat, reducing long-term dependency on foreign suppliers. Example: The development of Tejas Mk1A fighter jets, Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), and BrahMos missile systems (jointly developed with Russia) aims to strengthen indigenous capabilities.
- Strategic Alliances Without Military Alignment – India engages in defense collaborations without entering formal military alliances, ensuring diplomatic flexibility. Example: While India has signed defense agreements with the U.S. (BECA, LEMOA, COMCASA) and conducts military exercises like Malabar with the Quad nations, it remains non-aligned, maintaining its independent foreign policy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to border security;
Why in the News?
In February 2024, Union Home Minister Amit Shah announced plans to end the Free Movement Regime (FMR) along the Myanmar border. However, so far, there has been no official notification from the Ministry of External Affairs or any formal agreement with Myanmar on this matter.
What are the historical and socio-cultural reasons behind the implementation of the Free Movement Regime (FMR) along the India-Myanmar border?
- Ethnic and Familial Ties Across the Border: The India-Myanmar border cuts across communities with shared ancestry, language, and traditions. Ethnic groups such as the Chin, Mizo, Kuki, and Naga tribes live on both sides and consider themselves part of the same cultural identity.
- Example: The Mizo people in Mizoram and the Chin people in Myanmar share deep kinship ties and often intermarry, making border restrictions impractical for their social and economic interactions.
- Pre-Colonial Trade and Historical Linkages: Before colonial rule, there were no rigid boundaries, and people freely moved for trade, festivals, and religious practices. The FMR formalized this long-standing tradition.
- Example: The Naga tribes have historically maintained trade and social connections between Nagaland and the Sagaing Region of Myanmar, exchanging goods such as textiles, salt, and agricultural produce.
- Post-Independence Border Division Without Local Consent: The Indo-Myanmar border was drawn by the British without consulting local communities, splitting ethnic groups across two nations. The FMR was introduced in 1968 to ease movement and mitigate the negative impact of artificial boundaries.
- Example: The Kuki and Zomi tribes in Manipur and Myanmar continue to see themselves as a single community despite the international border, and FMR allows them to maintain their cultural and familial ties.
Why do Mizoram and Nagaland oppose scrapping the FMR, while Manipur supports it?
- Reasons for Opposition (Mizoram & Nagaland)
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- Ethnic & Cultural Ties: The Mizo and Naga communities share deep historical and familial ties with tribes across the Myanmar border. Example: Many Mizos have Chin relatives in Myanmar, and restricting movement disrupts social and economic relations.
- Humanitarian Concerns: Mizoram and Nagaland emphasize providing refuge to Myanmar nationals fleeing conflict and persecution. Example: Mizoram has sheltered thousands of Chin refugees since the military coup in Myanmar (2021).
- Economic & Livelihood Impact: Many border communities depend on cross-border trade and traditional exchanges. Example: Mizoram’s barter trade with Myanmar sustains rural economies.
- Reasons for Support (Manipur)
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- Security Concerns: Manipur sees unrestricted movement as a risk to security, citing arms smuggling and insurgency threats. Example: The state government has linked rising violence to unchecked cross-border infiltration.
- Demographic & Political Factors: Manipur fears an influx of migrants could alter its demographic balance and strain resources. Example: Tensions have risen between local communities and Kuki-Zo refugees from Myanmar.
What challenges does the Indian government face in implementing border fencing along the 1,653-km-long India-Myanmar border?
- Ethnic and Tribal Opposition: Several ethnic groups, such as the Nagas, Kukis, Mizos, and Chins, have strong familial and cultural ties across the border. Fencing would disrupt their traditional movement and economic activities.
- Difficult Terrain and Dense Forests: The India-Myanmar border passes through hilly terrain, dense forests, and riverine areas, making it logistically challenging to construct and maintain a continuous fence. Example: The rugged terrain of Manipur’s Moreh-Tamu sector complicates infrastructure development and patrolling efforts.
- Security and Insurgency Issues: The region is home to various insurgent groups, including NSCN-K (Naga), PLA (Manipur), and Chin National Army (Myanmar), who use the porous border for movement and arms smuggling. Fencing alone may not curb insurgency without enhanced intelligence and cooperation with Myanmar.
- Example: The Manipur-based People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has reportedly used Myanmar as a base for launching attacks in India.
- Impact on Free Movement Regime (FMR): The Free Movement Regime (FMR) allows people from border villages to travel up to 16 km inside each other’s territory without a visa. Fencing would disrupt this agreement, leading to resistance from local communities and potential diplomatic strain with Myanmar.
- Example: The border trade hub of Moreh (Manipur) and Tamu (Myanmar) benefits from FMR, and restrictions could harm livelihoods.
- High Financial and Maintenance Costs: Constructing a fence across 1,653 km of difficult terrain requires massive financial investment and continuous maintenance due to landslides, heavy rainfall, and natural degradation.
- Example: The fencing project in Manipur was delayed multiple times due to cost escalations and environmental challenges, making large-scale fencing impractical.
What alternatives balance national security and border community interests instead of scrapping the FMR? (Way forward)
- Strengthening Smart Surveillance and Border Management: Deploying technology-driven surveillance (such as drones, infrared sensors, and biometric tracking) can help secure the border without disrupting traditional movement.
- Example: India has successfully used the Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) along the India-Bangladesh border, which could be adapted for the India-Myanmar border.
- Regulated Border Trade and Movement Checkpoints: Instead of a blanket ban, regulated border entry points with biometric verification can ensure security while allowing legal movement under the FMR. More trade facilitation centers can also boost local economies.
- Example: The Moreh-Tamu border trade point in Manipur enables legitimate economic exchanges while maintaining oversight over cross-border movement.
- Enhanced Cooperation with Myanmar for Joint Patrolling: Strengthening bilateral cooperation for joint border patrolling and intelligence sharing can help curb insurgency and illegal activities while maintaining local mobility.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Analyze internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Bangladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard. (UPSC 2020)
Linkage: This question linked India Myanmar border issues. It requires an analysis of these issues specifically concerning the Indo-Myanmar border and the role of security forces in managing them.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Regulation of online content;
Why in the News?
Social media platform X told the Delhi High Court that it cannot be forced to join the government’s SAHYOG portal, raising concerns that the portal might be misused to restrict online content.
What is the SAHYOG portal?
- The SAHYOG portal is an initiative by India’s Ministry of Home Affairs designed to streamline the process of identifying and removing unlawful online content.
- It serves as a centralized platform that connects authorized government agencies with online intermediaries, such as social media platforms, to facilitate the automated issuance of notices under the Information Technology Act, 2000.
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How does the government justify the creation of SAHYOG portal?
- Enhancing Law Enforcement Efficiency: The government argues that SAHYOG enables faster coordination between law enforcement agencies, social media platforms, and telecom providers to remove unlawful content swiftly. Example: During communal riots, law enforcement can quickly flag and remove misinformation that could incite violence.
- Legal Obligation Under IT Act: The government justifies SAHYOG under Section 79(3)(b) of the IT Act, which mandates that intermediaries remove content upon receiving government notification to retain their safe harbour protection. Example: If a government agency reports a post promoting terrorism, the platform must take it down to comply with the law.
- Court-Mandated Need for Real-Time Action: The government cites the Delhi High Court’s observation in Shabana vs Govt of NCT of Delhi and Ors., which highlighted the necessity of a real-time content removal mechanism to handle urgent cases. Example: In cases of child exploitation content, immediate action through SAHYOG ensures rapid takedown and prevents further harm.
Why has X (formerly Twitter) challenged the SAHYOG portal in the Delhi High Court?
- Existence of an Independent Mechanism: X asserts that it has its own system to process valid legal requests for content removal and cannot be compelled to join the SAHYOG portal.
- Legal Concerns Over Parallel Mechanisms: The company argues that the SAHYOG portal creates a parallel content removal mechanism without the stringent legal safeguards outlined in Section 69A of the Information Technology Act, 2000.
- Potential for Unchecked Censorship: X is concerned that the portal could lead to unrestrained censorship by allowing multiple government officials to issue content removal orders without proper oversight.
How does Section 79(3)(b) of the IT Act differ from Section 69A in terms of content takedown provisions?
| Aspect |
Section 79(3)(b) |
Section 69A |
| Nature of Obligation |
- Intermediaries (social media platforms, websites) must remove content if they have “actual knowledge” of illegality or receive a court/government order.
|
- The government can directly block content if it threatens national security, public order, or sovereignty.
|
| Who Issues Takedown Orders? |
- Takedown is required based on court orders or government notifications; intermediaries must act or lose their safe harbor protection.
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- Only the central government can order content blocking through a confidential process.
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| Legal Safeguards & Due Process |
- Provides some scope for judicial review, as takedown requests are often based on court rulings.
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- Decisions are made secretly by a government committee, limiting transparency and legal recourse.
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| Scope of Application |
- Applies broadly to any illegal content, including defamation, copyright violations, and hate speech.
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- Targets content affecting national security, public order, or friendly relations with foreign states.
|
| Example Scenarios |
- If a court finds a defamatory post on social media, the platform must remove it.
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- The government can block TikTok or ban certain tweets for national security concerns (e.g., India’s TikTok ban in 2020).
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Who are the key stakeholders involved in the SAHYOG portal’s implementation and legal challenge?
- Government Authorities: The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) developed the SAHYOG portal to enhance coordination between law enforcement agencies and social media platforms for combating cybercrime. The portal aims to automate the process of sending notices to intermediaries for the removal or disabling of unlawful online content.
- Social Media Platforms (Intermediaries): Companies like X Corp (formerly Twitter) are directly impacted by the portal’s operations. X Corp has legally challenged the government’s use of the SAHYOG portal, arguing that it functions as a censorship tool by bypassing established legal safeguards and infringing upon constitutional rights such as freedom of speech.
- Judiciary: The Delhi High Court plays a pivotal role in adjudicating disputes related to the SAHYOG portal. It has urged various states, union territories, and intermediaries to join the portal to effectively combat cybercrime, while also addressing grievances from law enforcement agencies regarding data access from intermediaries.
Where does the Supreme Court’s ruling in Shreya Singhal vs Union of India come into play in the debate over SAHYOG?
- Precedent on Online Free Speech & Due Process: The Shreya Singhal ruling struck down Section 66A of the IT Act for being vague and overbroad, while upholding Section 69A with due process requirements, including hearings for content creators. Example: A journalist’s tweet flagged via SAHYOG may be removed without an opportunity to challenge it, violating Shreya Singhal principles.
- Judicial Safeguards & Preventing Arbitrary Censorship: Shreya Singhal upheld Section 69A but mandated transparent procedures, review committees, and justifications for content blocking. Example: If SAHYOG bulk blocks dissenting voices without an independent review, it could breach Shreya Singhal safeguards.
Way forward:
- Ensure Judicial Oversight & Accountability – Implement an independent review mechanism to prevent arbitrary censorship and align with the Shreya Singhal ruling.
- Enhance Transparency & Due Process – Mandate clear guidelines, periodic transparency reports, and an appeal system for content takedown decisions.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Discuss Section 66A of IT Act, with reference to its alleged violation of Article 19 of the Constitution. [UPSC 2013]
Linkage: This question linked with regulation of online content and the potential restrictions on freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by Article 19 of the Constitution. This is relevant because content takedown provisions are also a form of regulating online speech and need to be consistent with constitutional rights.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Indian education system;
Why in the News?
Recently, CBSE plans to let Class 10 students take their board exams twice a year (in February/March and May) from 2026. This change is meant to help students and follows the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
What are the key objectives of the CBSE’s proposed two-examination policy for Class 10 students starting from 2026?
- Provide a Second Chance: Students can take board exams twice in an academic year (February/March & May) to improve their scores. Example: A student who performs poorly in the first attempt due to illness can appear again without waiting a full year.
- Promote Competency-Based Learning: Shift from rote memorization to testing conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. Example: Instead of asking students to memorize historical dates, the exam may include analytical questions on historical events’ impact.
- Align with National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Encourage a flexible, student-friendly assessment model focused on continuous learning. Example: Like international systems (e.g., SAT in the U.S.), students get multiple opportunities to improve scores without excessive pressure.
Why does the policy raise concerns about increased student stress instead of reducing examination pressure?
- Short Remediation Window: The gap between the first (Feb/March) and second (May) exams is too short for meaningful improvement in weak areas. Example: A student struggling with math concepts in February may not get enough time to improve before the second attempt in May.
- Double the Exam Preparation Pressure: Instead of easing stress, students may feel pressured to prepare for two board exams in a short span. Example: Students may end up studying rigorously for both exams, fearing they might need a second attempt.
- Coaching-Centric Approach: The risk of coaching institutes exploiting the two-exam format may increase, leading to more emphasis on exam-focused learning rather than conceptual understanding. Example: Coaching centers may start specialized crash courses for the second attempt, pushing students into additional preparation cycles.
How could the proposed policy impact students from economically weaker sections?
- Higher Examination Fees: Students must pay a non-refundable fee covering both attempts, even if they only take one exam. Example: A student from a low-income family who performs well in the first attempt still pays for the second, increasing financial burden.
- Increased Dependence on Coaching: Private coaching centers may exploit the two-exam system, making it harder for students without financial resources to compete. Example: Wealthier students might afford special coaching for the second attempt, while economically weaker students struggle with self-study.
- Limited Access to Remedial Support: Schools may not provide structured support between the two exams, leaving underprivileged students without proper guidance. Example: A government school student scoring low in February may not have access to extra tutoring before the May exam.
- Delayed Class 11 Admissions: If second-attempt results are declared late, students from poor backgrounds may struggle with securing admissions or scholarships in time. Example: A student awaiting May results might miss out on early admissions in better schools with financial aid opportunities.
- Increased Psychological Pressure: Financial struggles combined with the pressure of performing well in two exams may cause additional stress and anxiety. Example: A student from a single-income household may feel forced to clear the first attempt to avoid extra financial strain on their family.
What changes are needed to make sure the policy follows the NEP 2020 and supports skill-based learning? (Way forward)
- Shift from Rote Learning to Competency-Based Assessment: Redesign question papers to focus on conceptual understanding, application, and problem-solving rather than memorization. Example: Instead of asking students to recall historical dates, exams should test their ability to analyze historical events and their impact.
- Structured Remedial Support Between Exams: Schools should provide focused remedial classes for students who perform poorly in the first attempt, helping them improve their conceptual understanding. Example: If a student struggles with algebra in February, they should receive targeted math coaching before the May exam.
- Flexible Examination Fee Structure: Allow students to pay for only one attempt if they do not wish to appear for both, ensuring financial equity. Example: A student confident in their preparation should not be forced to pay for a second exam they do not intend to take.
- Staggered Implementation with Pilot Studies: Conduct phased trials in diverse school settings to identify logistical and pedagogical challenges before nationwide implementation. Example: A pilot program in rural and urban schools can reveal differences in access to resources and necessary adjustments.
- Integration of Continuous and Holistic Assessment: Move towards year-round assessments that evaluate practical skills, creativity, and critical thinking, reducing reliance on a single high-stakes test. Example: Schools can introduce project-based assessments in science subjects, testing real-world application rather than just theoretical knowledge.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.” (UPSC 2020)
Reason: This question is directly linked with NEP 2020, the same policy framework that the CBSE’s ‘two-exam scheme’ claims to align with.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Gender issues;
Why in the News?
On Wednesday, March 26, 2025, the Supreme Court put a hold on an Allahabad High Court ruling from March 17. The High Court had stated that just grabbing a minor girl’s breasts, breaking the string of her pyjama, and trying to pull down her lower garment were not enough to consider it an attempt to rape.
What was the basis of the Allahabad High Court’s March 17 order regarding the attempt to rape charge?
- Reclassification of the Offense to Lesser Charges: Instead of attempt to rape (Section 511 IPC, Section 18 POCSO Act), the High Court downgraded the charges to Section 354(b) IPC (assault with intent to disrobe) and Section 9 POCSO Act (aggravated sexual assault).
- “Thoughtful Consideration” Despite Clear Trauma: The judgment stated that the case had been reviewed with “thoughtful consideration and meticulous examination of facts”, yet concluded that the offense of attempt to rape was not prima facie made out.
Why did the Supreme Court find the High Court’s observations “insensitive” and “inhuman”?
- Contradiction Between Facts and Conclusion: The High Court acknowledged the victim’s trauma—that the accused grabbed her breasts, broke the string of her pyjama, and tried to drag her under a culvert—but still concluded that this did not amount to an attempt to rape.
- Example: A case where an accused undresses and assaults a victim but is not charged with an attempt to rape, despite clear intent, shows a failure to apply legal principles correctly.
- Failure to Recognize the Seriousness of the Crime: The judgment downplayed the gravity of the accused’s actions by modifying the charge from attempt to rape to mere sexual assault, despite the victim being a minor.
- Delayed Judgment Despite “Thoughtful Consideration”: The case was reserved for judgment in November 2024 but the order was passed in March 2025, showing deliberate and conscious decision-making. The insensitivity was not a spur-of-the-moment error but a considered opinion.
- Misinterpretation of “Determination” to Commit Rape: The High Court ruled that the lack of direct penetration or explicit intent meant there was no determination to commit rape, ignoring legal precedents where actions leading up to rape have been considered an attempt.
- Example: In State of Maharashtra v. Mohd. Yakub (1980), the Supreme Court ruled that even preparatory acts leading to a crime can constitute an attempt. Here, forcibly undressing and dragging the minor away indicated clear criminal intent.
- Disregard for Judicial Responsibility and Victim’s Dignity: The Supreme Court highlighted that such remarks from a High Court judge could set a dangerous precedent, potentially discouraging victims from seeking justice.
What steps did the Supreme Court take after staying the Allahabad High Court’s order?
- Declared the High Court’s Observations “Insensitive and Inhuman”: The Supreme Court strongly criticized the Allahabad High Court’s order, stating that it displayed a “complete lack of sensitivity” and was “unknown to the tenets of law”. Example: Justice Gavai remarked that the judgment’s graphic description of the minor’s trauma only to dismiss the charge of attempt to rape was completely unjustified.
- Issued Notice to the Union Government and the State of Uttar Pradesh: The Court directed the Central and State governments to respond to the matter, ensuring a higher level of scrutiny and legal accountability. Example: By involving government authorities, the Supreme Court ensured that the prosecution and legal framework around sexual offenses against minors were properly examined.
- Allowed the Victim’s Mother to Join the Case: The Court granted liberty to the minor victim’s mother to implead herself in the case, ensuring that the victim’s family had a direct say in the proceedings. Example: This step allowed the victim’s mother to challenge the High Court’s dilution of charges and advocate for stronger legal action.
- Directed the Supreme Court Registry to Communicate the Order to the Allahabad High Court: The Court instructed its Registry to forward the stay order to the Allahabad High Court Chief Justice, urging necessary action against the Single Judge’s ruling. Example: This move signaled that the Supreme Court wanted the High Court’s Chief Justice to review and possibly take corrective measures on the judgment.
- Listed the Case for Further Hearing After Two Weeks: The Supreme Court scheduled the matter for further hearing, ensuring continuous judicial oversight and preventing any further miscarriage of justice. Example: This step kept the case active in the Supreme Court’s docket, preventing delays and allowing for immediate corrective action if required.
Way forward:
- Judicial Sensitization and Training on Gender Justice: Regular sensitization programs for judges, especially in cases involving sexual offenses, should be conducted to ensure judgments are aligned with the spirit of laws protecting women and minors.
- Strengthening Legal Precedents and Accountability Mechanisms: The Supreme Court should establish clear guidelines on what constitutes attempt to rape to prevent judicial misinterpretation. Review mechanisms should be in place to scrutinize judgments that dilute charges in serious offenses.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.” (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question directly relates to the broader theme of gender justice, which includes the protection of women and children from sexual violence. The Supreme Court’s intervention in the High Court’s order demonstrates its commitment to upholding gender justice and ensuring a sensitive interpretation of laws related to crimes against women and children.
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Why in the News?
Economic growth in southern states lagged behind India’s overall growth in 2023-24. Despite a large working population, unemployment rates in these states remain a major concern, as seen in their Budget and Economic Surveys.
What are the key reasons behind the economic growth of southern states lagging behind India’s overall growth in 2023-24?
- Lower Growth Rates Compared to National Average – While India’s economy grew at 9.2%, southern states like Tamil Nadu (8.2%) and Telangana (7.4%) recorded slower growth, with Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh growing at over 6%.
- Regional Income Disparities – Economic advantages are concentrated in select districts, limiting broad-based growth. For example, only 8 of 38 districts in Tamil Nadu and 3 of 33 in Telangana had higher per capita income than their state averages.
- Unemployment and Labour Force Challenges – Despite a significant working population, labour force participation rates (LFPR) in Tamil Nadu (58.8%), Karnataka (56.8%), and Kerala (56.2%) were below the national average of 60.1%, affecting economic output.
- Shift Towards Self-Employment – There is a decline in casual labour and an increase in self-employment, often in household enterprises, leading to a lack of stable wage employment. Example: In Telangana, self-employment rose by 8% to 55.9%, while casual labour fell by 5.7% to 18.7%.
- Slower Industrial and Manufacturing Growth – Despite industrial pushes, manufacturing contributes less than 20% of southern states’ economies, limiting their overall economic expansion.
Which southern state has the most equitable distribution of per capita income across its districts?
- More Even Income Spread: Kerala has 7 out of 14 districts with a per capita income above the state average, making it the most balanced among southern states. In contrast, Tamil Nadu (8 out of 38), Telangana (3 out of 33), and Karnataka (4 out of 31) show higher income concentration in a few districts.
- Unlike Telangana, where Rangareddy district’s per capita income is more than three times the state average, Kerala’s income distribution is less skewed, ensuring better regional development and social welfare across the state.
Why is this significant?
- Reduced Regional Disparities: A more balanced income distribution ensures that economic benefits are spread across districts, preventing excessive wealth concentration in urban centers. Example: Unlike Telangana, where Rangareddy dominates income levels, Kerala’s development is more uniform, reducing economic inequalities.
- Better Social and Human Development Indicators: Equitable income distribution translates into better education, healthcare, and infrastructure across all districts, improving overall quality of life. Example: Kerala consistently ranks high in Human Development Index (HDI) due to its statewide access to education and healthcare.
- Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: A well-distributed economy supports long-term stability by ensuring that no district lags significantly behind, leading to lower migration pressures and balanced urbanization. Example: Unlike Tamil Nadu, where Chengalpattu’s income is double the state average, Kerala’s economy avoids overburdening specific urban hubs, leading to sustainable development.
Why is unemployment still a pressing concern in southern states?
- Higher Labour Force Participation but Fewer Job Opportunities – While more people are seeking work, the availability of stable, well-paying jobs remains limited. Example: In 2023-24, Tamil Nadu (58.8%), Karnataka (56.8%), and Kerala (56.2%) had labour force participation rates lower than the national average (60.1%), indicating fewer employment opportunities relative to job seekers.
- Shift from Casual Labour to Self-Employment Without Formal Jobs Growth – More people are moving away from casual labour towards self-employment, but the growth of regular salaried jobs remains stagnant. Example: In Telangana, the self-employed workforce increased by 8% (to 55.9%), while casual labour declined by 5.7%, reflecting a lack of structured employment.
- Dominance of the Services Sector with Limited Manufacturing Growth – The services sector contributes over 50% of economic output, but it often lacks the capacity to absorb large numbers of workers, especially in lower-income groups. Example: In Tamil Nadu, despite an industrial push, manufacturing has not significantly increased its share in the state economy, limiting job creation in this sector.
What role does the services sector play in the economies of southern states?
- Primary Driver of Economic Growth – The services sector contributes over 50% of economic output in most southern states, making it the main engine of economic expansion. Example: In Karnataka and Telangana, the IT and software services industry significantly boosts state GDP, with Bengaluru and Hyderabad being major global tech hubs.
- Uneven Job Creation Across Skill Levels – While the services sector creates high-value jobs in IT, finance, and healthcare, it does not generate enough employment for lower-skilled workers, contributing to persisting unemployment. Example: Kerala, despite its strong service-driven economy (tourism, healthcare, remittances), struggles with high unemployment rates due to a lack of blue-collar service jobs.
Way forward:
- Diversify Economic Growth Beyond Services – Strengthen manufacturing and industrial sectors to create stable, large-scale employment opportunities, especially for lower-skilled workers. Example: Expanding MSMEs and industrial corridors in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka can boost job creation.
- Enhance Skill Development and Labour Market Reforms – Improve vocational training and upskilling programs to align with industry demands, ensuring better job-market absorption. Example: Kerala can integrate its educated workforce into high-value sectors like healthcare and renewable energy.
Mains PYQ:
Question: What is regional disparity? How does it differ from diversity? How serious is the issue of regional disparity in India? (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question’s demand is directly linked with the regional inequality, which explains why economic growth is concentrated in certain parts of a state. Understanding this helps us see why some districts develop faster than others.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-Afghanistan relations;
Why in the News?
The U.S. and Europe have stepped back from Afghanistan’s issues, and India should be concerned about losing influence among Afghans.
What are the key reasons behind India’s shift in its engagement policy with the Taliban government in Afghanistan?
- Geopolitical Realism and Regional Stability: India recognises that the Taliban regime is a reality and is engaging pragmatically to safeguard its interests.Example: India reopened its “technical mission” in Kabul (2022) to oversee humanitarian aid and maintain limited diplomatic channels.
- Countering Pakistan and China’s Influence: Pakistan and China have deepened their engagement with the Taliban, influencing Afghanistan’s policies. Example: China signed agreements with the Taliban on infrastructure and rare earth mining, pushing India to maintain a strategic foothold.
- Security Concerns and Terrorism Threats: Engagement allows India to monitor Taliban factions and ensure they do not support anti-India terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). Example: India’s quiet diplomacy with Taliban leaders like Sher Abbas Stanekzai helps in intelligence-sharing on terrorist threats.
- Economic and Infrastructure Interests: India has invested over $3 billion in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and Zaranj-Delaram Highway. Example: Talks on reviving Chabahar port connectivity and resuming development projects indicate India’s strategic economic interests.
- Humanitarian Assistance and People-to-People Ties: India’s aid and engagement help maintain goodwill among Afghan citizens, which could be useful in the long run. Example: India has sent 50,000 metric tonnes of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan despite diplomatic tensions.
Why is India hesitant to provide visas to Afghan refugees?
- Security Concerns and Risk of Infiltration: India fears that some refugees could have ties to terrorist groups like the Haqqani Network, LeT, or JeM, posing a national security risk. Example: Indian intelligence agencies raised concerns that Taliban-linked elements could exploit the visa process for entry.
- Political and Ideological Considerations: The government is cautious about allowing large-scale migration of Afghan refugees, aligning with its broader immigration policy.Example: India has prioritized granting visas to Hindus and Sikhs from Afghanistan while restricting others.
- Lack of a Comprehensive Refugee Policy: India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, and its refugee policies are ad hoc and politically driven. Example: Unlike Germany or Canada, India lacks a legal framework for recognizing and resettling Afghan refugees.
- Diplomatic Calculations and Taliban Relations: India does not want to openly oppose the Taliban by granting asylum to its critics, as it seeks to maintain diplomatic engagement with the regime. Example: Unlike during the Northern Alliance era, India has not offered safe passage to anti-Taliban leaders.
- Economic and Logistical Constraints: Providing visas and long-term support for a large refugee influx would require financial and administrative resources that India is reluctant to allocate. Example: During the 2021 Taliban takeover, thousands of Afghans, including students and former Indian allies, applied for emergency visas, but only a small fraction were granted entry.
How can India balance its strategic interests in Afghanistan while ensuring support for Afghan civil society and opposition groups?
- Dual Engagement Strategy: India should maintain diplomatic ties with the Taliban government for security and economic interests while also engaging with Afghan opposition groups and civil society. Example: India’s past engagement with the Northern Alliance in the 1990s, alongside its outreach to the Afghan Republic (2001-2021), showcases a balanced approach.
- Humanitarian and Development Aid: Continuing humanitarian assistance such as food, medical supplies, and education programs can support Afghan civilians without directly endorsing the Taliban. Example: India has provided wheat, vaccines, and essential medicines to Afghanistan through international organizations like the UN.
- Support for Afghan Refugees and Students: Granting visas and scholarships to Afghan students, women, and activists can help sustain Afghanistan’s civil society and ensure long-term goodwill. Example: India’s ICCR scholarship program for Afghan students helped many pursue higher education in India before 2021.
- Leveraging Regional and International Partnerships: Engaging with like-minded countries (e.g., Iran, Russia, Central Asian nations) and multilateral forums (e.g., UN, SCO) to ensure a collective approach toward Afghan stability. Example: India’s participation in the Moscow Format Talks and its collaboration with Iran on the Chabahar port for trade connectivity.
- Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Hosting Afghan cultural events, supporting Afghan media in exile, and fostering connections between Afghan intellectuals and Indian institutions can preserve historical ties. Example: India has previously hosted Afghan leaders and artists, maintaining its soft power influence despite regime changes.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Strategic and Humanitarian Engagement: India should expand its humanitarian assistance through trusted international organizations while exploring avenues for economic cooperation that align with its security interests.
- Institutionalizing a Long-Term Afghanistan Policy: India should formulate a structured Afghanistan policy that balances security, economic, and humanitarian interests while ensuring protection for Afghan civil society.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: The demand of the question directly linked with the “why India’s relations with its neighbors are crucial for regional stability and its own security” for example the situation in Afghanistan after the “Great Abandonment” affects stability in the region, and India’s approach to its neighbors should be understood in this larger context.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India’s policy towards China and USA;
Why in the News?
India is adopting a conciliatory approach towards China, with improving ties since the 2020 border clashes.
Why has India adopted a more conciliatory stance towards China in recent months?
- De-escalation of Border Tensions: India and China have gradually disengaged from multiple friction points along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) since the 2020 Galwan clashes. Example: In October 2023, both sides agreed to withdraw troops from the last two major standoff points in eastern Ladakh.
- Economic Considerations: China remains India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching record levels despite political tensions. Example: In 2023, India’s imports from China exceeded $100 billion, highlighting the economic interdependence.
- Strategic Uncertainty in U.S. Policy: With the U.S. showing unpredictability under the Trump administration, India may seek to hedge its bets by stabilizing ties with China. Example: Trump’s reluctance to support Ukraine and potential shifts in U.S. Asia policy raise concerns about long-term American commitments.
- Focus on Domestic Growth and Development: India aims to maintain economic stability and avoid prolonged military confrontations that could divert resources from development. Example: Infrastructure projects like “Make in India” and semiconductor manufacturing require a stable geopolitical environment.
- Maintaining Diplomatic Leverage: A balanced approach allows India to engage with multiple global powers while keeping strategic options open. Example: While signaling reconciliation with China, India continues military exercises with the Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia) to maintain leverage.
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How does the shifting U.S. foreign policy under the Trump administration impact India’s strategic choices regarding China?
- Uncertainty Over U.S. Security Commitments: Trump’s ambiguous stance on global security, including reduced support for Ukraine, raises doubts about America’s reliability in countering China’s aggression. Example: The U.S. halted intelligence sharing on Russian missile threats to Ukraine, signaling potential unpredictability in military alliances.
- Possibility of a U.S.-China Grand Bargain: Trump’s transactional diplomacy suggests he may prioritize economic deals with China over strategic containment, potentially sidelining India’s concerns. Example: His approach to Russia—offering compromises for economic gains—hints at a similar possibility with China, affecting Indo-U.S. strategic alignment.
- Pressure on India to Strengthen Self-Reliance: With the U.S. potentially scaling back its role in Asia, India must enhance its military capabilities and deepen partnerships with other allies. Example: India has intensified defense cooperation with Japan, Australia, and France while increasing indigenous military production (e.g., Tejas fighter jets, submarine projects).
What military limitations has India faced in recent years despite rising security challenges?
- Delayed Modernization and Declining Defense Budget: India’s defense spending as a share of GDP has steadily declined over the past decade, limiting critical investments in military modernization. Example: The Indian Air Force still operates outdated MiG-21 fighters, with delays in acquiring Rafale jets and indigenous Tejas aircraft.
- Slow Progress in Indigenous Defense Manufacturing: Despite initiatives like Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), India remains dependent on foreign arms suppliers, leading to procurement delays. Example: The Project 75I submarine program has seen repeated delays, affecting the Navy’s ability to counter China’s growing maritime presence.
- Limited Military Buildup Despite Border Tensions: After the 2020 Ladakh standoff, India disengaged from key incursion sites but did not significantly increase troop deployments or infrastructure in vulnerable areas. Example: While China rapidly built roads, bridges, and airstrips near the Line of Actual Control (LAC), India’s infrastructure development in border areas has lagged.
Who are India’s key partners in military cooperation?
- United States (U.S.): India and the U.S. have strengthened defense ties through agreements like COMCASA, BECA, and LEMOA, facilitating intelligence sharing and logistics support. Example: India participates in the Malabar naval exercise with the U.S., enhancing interoperability in the Indo-Pacific region.
- Russia: Russia remains a key defense supplier, providing advanced weaponry, including fighter jets, submarines, and missile systems. Example: India procured the S-400 air defense system from Russia despite U.S. pressure and CAATSA sanctions concerns.
- France: France is a crucial partner in aerospace and naval defense cooperation, supplying high-end military equipment. Example: India acquired Rafale fighter jets from France and is collaborating on Scorpene-class submarines under Project 75.
- Israel: India-Israel defense ties focus on advanced technology, particularly in missile defense, drones, and cyber warfare. Example: India procured Barak-8 missile defense systems and Heron UAVs from Israel for border security.
- Quad Partners (Japan & Australia): India’s partnerships with Japan and Australia focus on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and defense exercises. Example: The India-Japan 2+2 ministerial dialogue and AUSINDEX naval exercise with Australia boost strategic ties in the Indo-Pacific.
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How can operational coordination help strengthen India’s strategic position? (Way forward)
- Enhanced Interoperability with Allies: Regular joint exercises improve coordination between India and its military partners, ensuring seamless cooperation in real-world conflicts. Example: The Malabar Naval Exercise with the U.S., Japan, and Australia enhances India’s naval capabilities in the Indo-Pacific.
- Force Multiplication through Intelligence Sharing: Coordinated intelligence sharing provides India with real-time situational awareness, helping in threat assessment and strategic planning. Example: BECA agreement with the U.S. enables India to access geospatial intelligence, improving precision targeting and surveillance.
- Deterrence Against Aggression: Strengthened operational coordination signals military preparedness, discouraging adversaries from engaging in aggressive actions. Example: Joint patrols with France in the Indian Ocean demonstrate India’s extended reach and deterrence capabilities.
Mains PYQ:
Question: ‘The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question directly addresses the strategic implications of China’s rise and India’s potential role in countering it, which is relevant to the theme of deterrence.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Food wastage and its impact;
Why in the News?
The UNEP’s Food Waste Index Report 2024 shows that 1.05 billion tonnes of food were wasted in 2022, about 20% of the world’s food. India is a major contributor, making this a serious environmental and ethical issue.
What are the key differences between food waste and food loss as per the Food Waste Index Report (FWIR) 2024?
- Food Waste: It includes both edible and inedible parts discarded at the consumer and retail levels (households, restaurants, supermarkets, etc.). It happens due to over-purchasing, poor storage, and cultural habits of excess food preparation.
- Food Loss: It occurs earlier in the supply chain (from production to retail) due to inadequate storage, transportation, handling, and infrastructure failures.
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Why does the food waste in India pose a significant environmental and social challenge?
- Worsens Hunger and Food Insecurity: Despite being a major food producer, over 20 crore Indians go to bed hungry while 78 million tonnes of food are wasted annually. Example: Tons of edible surplus food from weddings and restaurants are discarded instead of being redistributed to the needy.
- Increases Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Food waste in landfills decomposes and releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than CO₂. Example: India’s food waste contributes 10%-12% of total municipal waste, significantly impacting climate change.
- Wastage of Natural Resources: Food production requires land, water, and energy. Wasting food means wasting these scarce resources. Example: It takes 1,800 liters of water to produce just 1 kg of rice—if wasted, all that water is also wasted.
- Economic Loss and Financial Burden: Wasting food leads to huge financial losses for households, businesses, and the economy. Example: Retailers discard unsold perishable foods like dairy and fruits due to short shelf life, leading to billions of rupees in losses annually.
- Aggravates Climate Change and Natural Disasters: Increased food demand due to waste leads to deforestation, soil degradation, and excessive water usage, worsening environmental crises. Example: Rising extreme weather events (droughts, floods) impact crop production, making food security more vulnerable.
Where in the food supply chain do inefficiencies lead to high levels of food wastage in India?
- Post-Harvest Losses (Farm Level): Poor harvesting techniques and lack of proper drying/storage cause significant losses. Example: Grains left in open fields get damaged by rain, pests, or rodents due to inadequate storage facilities.
- Storage and Transportation Issues: Inadequate cold storage and poor transportation infrastructure lead to spoilage, especially for perishable goods. Example: Fruits and vegetables rot in transit due to a lack of refrigerated trucks, particularly in rural areas.
- Retail and Market-Level Losses: Supermarkets and local markets discard unsold food due to short shelf life, improper handling, and strict quality standards. Example: Bruised or oddly shaped vegetables and fruits are rejected and thrown away by vendors, even if they are edible.
- Household-Level Waste: Over-purchasing, improper meal planning, and poor storage lead to significant food waste in homes. Example: Families discard leftovers or expired groceries because they were not consumed in time.
- Food Service Industry (Hotels, Restaurants, and Caterers): Large-scale food preparation for events, hotels, and restaurants results in excess food being thrown away. Example: Buffet-style dining in weddings and hotels often leads to tons of uneaten food being discarded instead of redistributed.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- “Save Food, Share Food” Initiative: A program launched to redistribute surplus food from individuals, businesses, and organizations to the needy. Example: Collaboration with NGOs and food banks ensures excess food from weddings, hotels, and events is shared rather than wasted.
- Strengthening Cold Storage and Supply Chain Infrastructure: Investment in cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport to reduce post-harvest losses. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana supports food processing industries to improve storage and preservation.
- Amendments in Food Safety and Standards Regulations: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) encourages supermarkets and restaurants to donate surplus food instead of discarding it.Example: The Food Sharing Guidelines (2019) enable food redistribution through certified food banks and NGOs.
- Awareness Campaigns and Behavioral Change Initiatives: Government-led campaigns promote responsible food consumption, meal planning, and waste reduction. Example: The Indian Food Sharing Alliance (IFSA), launched by FSSAI, connects food businesses and NGOs to reduce waste.
- Support for Food Processing and Preservation: Encouraging food processing industries to convert surplus produce into value-added products like dried, frozen, or packaged foods. Example: The government provides subsidies and incentives for food processing units under schemes like the Mega Food Parks Scheme to reduce waste.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Food Redistribution Networks: Expand and streamline food donation mechanisms through digital platforms connecting surplus food sources (hotels, supermarkets, households) with NGOs and food banks. Example: A nationwide food-sharing app can help track surplus food and ensure efficient redistribution to the needy.
- Improving Supply Chain Efficiency with Technology: Leverage AI, IoT, and blockchain for real-time monitoring of food storage, transport conditions, and expiry tracking to reduce wastage. Example: Smart sensors in cold storage and logistics can alert businesses to temperature fluctuations, preventing spoilage of perishable items.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2017)
Reason: This question connects climate change to food security, a situation that could be exacerbated by food wastage.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Maoist insurgency in India;
Why in the News?
On March 20, 2025, security forces carried out two missions in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, and killed 30 Maoist people. This made the total number of Maoists killed this year more than 100.
What were the key reasons behind the decline of the Maoist insurgency in India?
- Strong Counter-Insurgency Operations: Security forces, including CRPF’s elite COBRA (Commando Battalion for Resolute Action) unit and state police forces, have conducted targeted operations against Maoist strongholds. Example: Operation Prahar in Chhattisgarh led to the elimination of top Maoist leaders and disrupted their logistical networks.
- Improved Governance and Development Initiatives: Infrastructure projects like roads, electrification, and mobile connectivity have reduced Maoist influence by increasing state presence. Example: The Aspirational Districts Programme has focused on healthcare, education, and employment in Maoist-affected regions.
- Erosion of Support Base: Maoists have lost support due to their violent tactics, including forced recruitment, extortion, and attacks on civilians. Example: The killing of Madvi Hidma, a local tribal leader, by Maoists in Bastar led to mass protests by villagers against them.
- Surrender and Rehabilitation Policies: Government schemes like the ‘Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy’ offer financial aid, skill training, and housing to former Maoists. Example: Over 600 Maoists surrendered in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh after the government provided rehabilitation and employment opportunities.
- Internal Divisions and Leadership Crisis: The Maoist movement has suffered from ideological splits, a lack of new leadership, and desertions. Example: The death of Kishenji (Maoist leader) in 2011 and the arrest of several senior cadres have weakened organizational unity.
Why is a purely militaristic approach insufficient in tackling the Maoist insurgency?
- Deep-Rooted Socio-Economic Issues Drive Insurgency: Maoism thrives in areas with poverty, land alienation, and lack of governance. Military force alone does not address the core grievances of tribal communities. Example: The displacement of tribals due to mining projects in Dantewada, Chhattisgarh, has fueled resentment, making them vulnerable to Maoist influence.
- Risk of Civilian Casualties and Alienation: Excessive military action can lead to civilian deaths, human rights violations, and loss of trust in the state, pushing locals towards Maoists instead of the government. Example: The Salwa Judum campaign (2005-2011), a state-backed militia to counter Maoists, led to severe human rights abuses, ultimately worsening the conflict.
- Failure to Provide a Long-Term Solution: Military operations can weaken Maoists but do not offer a sustainable path for peace and rehabilitation. A mix of governance, dialogue, and development is needed. Example: The Nepali Maoists transitioned into mainstream politics through a negotiated peace process, showing that engagement can be a more effective long-term strategy.
Where are the remaining strongholds of Maoist influence in India?
- Southern Chhattisgarh (Bastar Region): Dense forests, difficult terrain, and historical neglect in governance make it a Maoist stronghold. Example: Dantewada, Sukma, and Bijapur districts frequently witness Maoist ambushes on security forces.
- Border Regions of Jharkhand, Odisha, and Telangana: The tri-junction of these states provides a strategic corridor for Maoist movement and arms supply. Example: Latehar (Jharkhand), Malkangiri (Odisha), and Bhadradri-Kothagudem (Telangana) remain active insurgent zones.
- Gadchiroli District (Maharashtra): Proximity to Chhattisgarh’s Maoist belt and forested terrain offer a safe haven for Maoist cadres. Example: The Jambhulkheda encounter saw security forces eliminate top Maoist leaders in this region.
Who are the primary stakeholders in resolving the Maoist issue peacefully?
- Government (Union and State Governments): Responsible for policy-making, law enforcement, and development initiatives in affected regions. Example: The Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy offers incentives for Maoists to reintegrate into society.
- Security Forces (Police, Paramilitary, and Intelligence Agencies): Play a crucial role in counterinsurgency operations and maintaining law and order. Example: The Greyhounds (Telangana), CoBRA (CRPF), and District Reserve Guard (Chhattisgarh) specialise in anti-Maoist operations.
- Tribal Communities and Local Populations: Often caught in the crossfire, they need protection, development, and inclusion in governance. Example: The PESA Act (1996) empowers tribal self-governance to address their grievances.
- Civil Society and NGOs: Mediate peace talks, advocate for human rights, and support socio-economic development. Example: Swami Agnivesh’s peace efforts attempted negotiations between Maoists and the government.
- Former Maoists and Rehabilitation Advocates: It can influence insurgents to surrender and integrate into mainstream society. Example: Former Maoist leader Gopanna Markam, who surrendered and helped bring others into the fold.
How can lessons from international experiences, such as FARC in Colombia or Nepali Maoists? (Way forward)
- Negotiation and Political Integration: Offering insurgents a political pathway can encourage them to abandon violence. Example: Nepali Maoists transitioned from armed struggle to mainstream politics through the 2006 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, leading to their participation in democratic governance.
- Rehabilitation and Reintegration Programs: Providing economic and social reintegration opportunities reduces the chances of re-radicalization. Example: Colombia’s peace deal with FARC (2016) included land reforms, financial aid, and skill development programs for former rebels.
- Addressing Root Causes through Development: Long-term peace requires addressing socio-economic grievances that fuel insurgencies. Example: Colombia’s rural development programs aimed to improve infrastructure, education, and healthcare in former conflict zones to prevent a resurgence of violence.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.” (2022)
Reason: This question directly addresses Naxalism (Maoist insurgency) as more than just a security problem, aligning with this article. It also asks for a multilayered strategy, hinting at the need for more than just security measures, such as addressing social and economic issues.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Tuberculosis cases in India;
Why in the News?
Tuberculosis cases in India dropped from over 237 per lakh people in 2015 to below 200 per lakh in 2022, showing a 16% decrease.
What has been the percentage decline in TB incidence and mortality in India since 2015?
- Decline in TB Incidence: In 2015, TB incidence in India was 237 per lakh population. By 2022, it had dropped to below 200 per lakh, showing a 16% decline. Example: If 237 people per lakh had TB in 2015, now fewer than 200 per lakh are affected.
- Reduction in TB Mortality: TB mortality declined from higher levels in 2015 to 23 per lakh population in 2022. This represents an 18% decline in TB-related deaths. Example: If 100,000 people were affected, 23 would die from TB in 2022 compared to a higher number in 2015.
What factors led to a decline in TB incidence and mortality?
- Improved Diagnosis and Treatment: The decline is attributed to better TB detection, newer diagnostic methods, and improved healthcare access. Example: The use of rapid molecular testing like CBNAAT and TrueNat has increased early detection rates.
- Government Initiatives and Free Treatment Programs: Schemes like Nikshay Poshan Yojana, which provides nutritional support to TB patients, have played a role. Example: Free TB treatment under Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) and National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) has improved patient outcomes.
- Targeted Approach for Drug-Resistant TB: Specialized treatment centers and newer drugs like Bedaquiline and Delamanid have improved survival rates for MDR-TB and XDR-TB patients.
Example: The expansion of Drug-Resistant TB Centers (DR-TBCs) across India has ensured timely and quality treatment for resistant cases.
- Active Case Finding and Surveillance: The government and NGOs have been proactively identifying TB cases, even among asymptomatic individuals, through door-to-door screening and community outreach programs. Example: The “Active Case Finding” (ACF) initiative.
- The “Aashwasan” program is a large-scale ACF campaign successfully implemented across 174 tribal districts of India in 2022, focusing on TB among tribal communities.
Note: Despite progress, drug-resistant TB (MDR-TB, XDR-TB) remains a major issue, with low treatment success rates. Example: While overall TB mortality is declining, severely drug-resistant TB still has a treatment success rate of only 45% in India (2021). |
Why is the treatment success rate for severely drug-resistant TB lower than other forms of TB?
- Limited Effective Drugs & High Toxicity: Severely drug-resistant TB is resistant to isoniazid, rifampicin, fluoroquinolones, and at least one second-line injectable drug. This leaves fewer treatment options, and the available drugs often have severe side effects like organ damage. Example: Patients with Pre-XDR-TB (resistant to fluoroquinolones) have a success rate of only 68%, while MDR-TB (less resistant) has a success rate of 74%.
- Longer & More Complex Treatment Regimens: Treatment can take 18-24 months with a combination of multiple drugs. Many patients fail to complete treatment due to the high cost, side effects, or lack of adherence. Example: A patient with XDR-TB (extensively drug-resistant TB) may require daily injections and strong antibiotics, leading to dropout and failure.
- Weaker Immunity & Higher Mortality Risk: Severely drug-resistant TB is harder to treat in patients with weaker immune systems, such as those with HIV, diabetes, or malnutrition. Example: In India, a significant number of TB patients suffer from poor nutrition, making them more vulnerable to severe drug-resistant TB and treatment failure.
Where does India rank among lower-middle-income countries in terms of catastrophic health expenditure due to TB?
- Third Highest Among Lower-Middle-Income Countries: Over 10% of India’s population faces catastrophic health expenditure due to TB. Catastrophic health spending is defined as exceeding 10% of a household’s income or consumption. Example: Among 14 lower-middle-income countries with a high TB burden, India ranks third in terms of the population facing financial strain due to TB treatment.
- Despite High Health Coverage, Costs Remain High: Around 60% of India’s population has some form of health coverage, making it the third highest among these countries. However, out-of-pocket expenses remain high, leading to significant financial distress for many TB patients. Example: Even with government schemes like PM-JAY (Ayushman Bharat), many TB patients still bear steep medical and non-medical costs (e.g., travel, and nutrition).
Who are the top-performing and bottom-performing states in India’s fight against TB according to the TB index?
- Top-Performing States: Among major states, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Gujarat rank highest in the TB index. Example: These states have shown better TB detection rates, improved treatment success rates, and stronger healthcare interventions to combat TB effectively.
- Bottom-Performing States: Punjab, Bihar, and Karnataka rank lowest in the TB index among major states. Example: These states struggle with weaker TB surveillance, lower treatment adherence, and higher financial burden on patients, impacting overall TB control efforts.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Drug-Resistant TB Management: Expand access to newer, effective TB drugs (e.g., Bedaquiline, Pretomanid) and ensure adherence through shorter, less toxic treatment regimens. Example: Scaling up all-oral MDR-TB regimens can improve treatment success rates.
- Reduce Financial Burden on TB Patients: Enhance direct benefit transfers for nutrition and support under schemes like Nikshay Poshan Yojana and integrate TB care with Ayushman Bharat for full cost coverage. Example: Covering non-medical costs (e.g., travel, nutrition) can reduce catastrophic health expenditure.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level” (2024)
Reason: This question relates to strengthening the public health system, which is crucial for TB control and treatment success.
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? (2022)
Reason: This question explores India’s engagement with other regional groupings. India’s experience with BIMSTEC, its objectives, and the lessons learned in fostering regional cooperation can inform its approach and strategy as the chair of IORA. It also touches upon how India uses multilateral platforms to achieve its foreign policy goals, a key aspect of its IORA leadership. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) held its Council of Ministers (COM) meeting in Colombo on October 11, 2024, with the theme “Reinforcing Indian Ocean Identity.” Foreign ministers and senior officials from its 23 member countries attended the event. In 2024, many other countries, especially “dialogue partners” or those wanting to join as dialogue partners, showed great interest in the organization. IORA, founded 26 years ago, is believed to have been an idea originally proposed by former South African President Nelson Mandela.
Today’s editorial discusses issues related to the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and India’s role in it, which is useful for GS Paper 2 in International Relations.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
New Delhi should create a strong base for effective governance that works at the local level and brings real impact.
What are the key priorities for India as it prepares to chair the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)?
- Enhancing Funding Opportunities: India can engage private sector players like shipping companies (Maersk, Adani Ports), oil & gas firms (ONGC, Reliance), and marine tourism operators to contribute financially to IORA’s initiatives.
- Strengthening Maritime Security & Safety: Expanding India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram to enhance real-time maritime surveillance and counter threats like piracy, illegal fishing, and trafficking.
- Integrating Technology for Data Management & Policy Analysis: Promoting AI-driven marine data analytics to track ocean health, predict climate change impacts, and improve fisheries management across IORA nations.
- Developing Maritime Education & Skill-Based Training: Partnering with institutions like IIT-Madras and NIOT (National Institute of Ocean Technology) to create specialized courses in marine economy, deep-sea exploration, and coastal governance.
- Strengthening Blue Economy & Sustainable Practices: Collaborating with Australia for marine research, UAE for investment in sustainable fisheries, and Seychelles for traditional knowledge on marine conservation to develop eco-friendly economic growth models.
Why is funding a major challenge for IORA?
- Dependence on Member Contributions: IORA’s budget is primarily dependent on contributions from its 23 member states, most of which are developing economies. For example, Only a few countries like Singapore, UAE, and France have the financial capability to contribute significantly, while others struggle to meet commitments.
- Limited Private Sector Involvement: IORA lacks strong partnerships with private enterprises, which could provide alternative funding sources. For example, Industries related to shipping, oil & gas, fisheries, and marine tourism are key players in the region but are not formally involved in IORA’s funding model.
- Comparatively Small Budget: IORA’s total annual budget is just a few million dollars, making it insufficient for large-scale maritime security, climate resilience, and economic development projects. For example, The Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), despite having only five members, has a $1.3 billion budget (2020-25)—significantly larger than IORA’s budget.
- Expanding Scope of Activities: IORA is expanding into maritime safety, disaster management, technology, and blue economy initiatives, all of which require resource-intensive investments. For example, Implementing maritime surveillance systems and disaster risk management programs demands consistent funding, which is currently lacking.
- Lack of a Dedicated Fundraising Mechanism: Unlike organizations like the ASEAN Development Fund, IORA does not have a structured mechanism to raise funds through external donors, financial institutions, or international aid agencies. For example, ASEAN collaborates with ADB (Asian Development Bank) and the World Bank for project funding, while IORA lacks such institutional financial backing.
How can it be addressed?
- Diversifying Funding Sources: IORA should explore alternative funding mechanisms such as public-private partnerships (PPPs), external grants, and contributions from international financial institutions. Example: ASEAN collaborates with the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank for project funding, which IORA can emulate.
- Enhancing Private Sector Engagement: Establish formal partnerships with shipping, energy, fisheries, and tourism industries to attract investment in key maritime projects. Example: Creating an IORA Business Forum to facilitate corporate sponsorships and private sector-driven development projects.
- Setting Up a Dedicated IORA Development Fund: Establish a structured IORA Development Fund where member states, international donors, and regional banks contribute for long-term sustainability. Example: The ASEAN Development Fund (ADF) pools resources for regional projects, which IORA can replicate to support blue economy and maritime security initiatives.
- Strengthening Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation: Strengthen financial partnerships with G20 economies, UN agencies, and regional economic blocs to access technical and financial assistance. Example: IORA can seek support from India’s Development Partnership Administration (DPA) or Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) for infrastructure and capacity-building programs.
- Implementing a Tiered Membership Contribution Model: Introduce a differentiated contribution system where larger economies contribute more while smaller nations have flexible or in-kind contributions. Example: Organizations like the International Maritime Organization (IMO) use GDP-based contribution tiers to ensure fair burden-sharing among members.
India’s Role in IORA – Timeline of Key Initiatives
How does the Indian Ocean Region contribute to global trade and economic activities?
- Major Trade and Energy Corridor: The Indian Ocean facilitates 75% of global maritime trade and 50% of daily oil consumption, making it a critical route for global commerce. The Strait of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz are key chokepoints for oil and goods transportation.
- Rich Blue Economy and Marine Resources: The region generates $1 trillion in goods and services, including fisheries, aquaculture, and seabed resources. India, Indonesia, and Thailand have thriving fishing industries, while Mozambique and Madagascar are rich in offshore gas reserves.
- Strategic Economic Hubs and Ports: Major ports like Singapore, Mumbai, Colombo, and Dubai serve as global transhipment and logistics hubs, driving regional and global trade. Gwadar (Pakistan) and Hambantota (Sri Lanka) are being developed as part of strategic maritime infrastructure projects.
Where can India leverage its strengths and partnerships to enhance IORA’s governance and effectiveness?
- Maritime Security and Disaster Resilience: India can take the lead in strengthening maritime surveillance, anti-piracy measures, and disaster preparedness in the Indian Ocean region. Example: India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) can be expanded to assist IORA members in real-time maritime domain awareness.
- Capacity Building and Skill Development: India can offer training programs, scholarships, and technical assistance to IORA members in areas like blue economy, digital governance, and climate adaptation. Example: The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program can be expanded to provide skill development for professionals from IORA nations.
- Sustainable Blue Economy Initiatives: India can collaborate with IORA countries to promote marine biotechnology, sustainable fisheries, and ocean-based renewable energy. Example: India’s Deep Ocean Mission and expertise in offshore wind energy can be shared with IORA nations for sustainable development.
- Trade and Connectivity Infrastructure: India can enhance regional trade and connectivity through port modernization, maritime logistics, and blue economy-driven trade facilitation. Example: The Sagarmala Project can be leveraged to assist IORA nations in upgrading port infrastructure and coastal shipping networks.
- Multilateral Partnerships and Development Finance: India can work with Quad, G20, BRICS, and ASEAN to secure additional funding and policy coordination for IORA’s initiatives. Example: India’s leadership in the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) can be extended to help IORA nations build climate-resilient maritime infrastructure.
Way forward:
- Institutional Strengthening & Financial Sustainability: IORA should establish a dedicated development fund, diversify revenue streams through public-private partnerships, and enhance cooperation with global financial institutions like the World Bank and ADB to ensure long-term financial stability.
- Strategic & Inclusive Engagement: India must promote technology-driven governance, capacity-building initiatives, and regional connectivity projects while fostering multilateral partnerships with ASEAN, Quad, and BRICS to enhance IORA’s strategic relevance and effectiveness.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Budget;
Why in the News?
The current budget process reduces the involvement of elected representatives, weakening democratic accountability.
How does the current budget process reduce the role of elected representatives and weaken democratic accountability?
- Executive Monopoly Over Budget Formulation: The Budget is drafted exclusively by the Finance Ministry, with even Cabinet Ministers kept unaware until its presentation in the Lok Sabha. Example: Unlike legislative bills, the Union Budget is not subjected to extensive cabinet discussions before being tabled in Parliament.
- Lack of Pre-Budget Consultations: Parliamentarians do not have an institutional mechanism to provide input before the Budget is finalized. Example: In contrast to countries like the UK, where parliamentary committees discuss budget priorities in advance, India lacks such structured engagement.
- Limited Role of the Rajya Sabha: The Upper House has no direct power to amend or reject the Budget, reducing its ability to scrutinize financial policies. Example: The Finance Minister, even if a Rajya Sabha member, cannot vote on the Budget in the Lok Sabha, where financial matters are decided.
- Weak Oversight by Parliamentary Committees: Parliamentary committees do not have the authority to modify budget proposals or demand policy changes. Example: Department-related Standing Committees review Demands for Grants but can only make recommendations, which the government is not bound to accept.
- Time Constraints and Superficial Debates: The Budget session allows limited time for discussion, leading to rushed approvals without in-depth scrutiny. Example: In many cases, the Guillotine Process is used, where multiple Demands for Grants are passed without discussion due to time limitations.
What is the Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)?
A Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) is an independent, non-partisan institution that provides objective analysis of government budgets, fiscal policies, and economic forecasts to assist lawmakers in informed decision-making. It enhances legislative oversight, ensures transparency, and improves accountability in public finance management. Examples include the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) and Canada’s PBO.
What about the constitutional status of the Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)?
There is no explicit mention of a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) in the Indian Constitution. However, its establishment can be linked to broader constitutional provisions related to financial oversight and legislative accountability:
- Article 112 (Annual Financial Statement) – The Union Budget is presented before Parliament, which has the power to scrutinize and approve it. A PBO can strengthen this oversight by providing independent budgetary analysis.
- Article 266 & 267 (Consolidated and Contingency Funds of India) – Parliament controls government expenditure, and a PBO can assist in evaluating the fiscal implications of such spending.
- Article 148-151 (Comptroller and Auditor General – CAG) – While CAG audits past expenditures, a PBO would provide forward-looking budgetary insights to Parliament.
- Article 105 (Powers and Privileges of Parliament) – Parliament has the right to seek information on financial matters, and a PBO could serve as a resource for unbiased fiscal analysis.
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Why is the establishment of a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) considered essential for fiscal oversight?
- Independent and Data-Driven Budget Analysis: A PBO would provide legislators with non-partisan, expert analysis of government spending, revenue forecasts, and fiscal policies. Example: The U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) conducts independent evaluations of federal budgets, ensuring transparency and evidence-based policy decisions.
- Enhanced Legislative Scrutiny and Accountability: It would strengthen Parliament’s ability to evaluate the financial implications of policies and hold the executive accountable. Example: Countries like Canada and the UK have PBOs that assess fiscal policies, preventing governments from making unrealistic budgetary claims.
- Support for Informed Decision-Making by Legislators: Parliamentarians often lack technical expertise in financial matters; a PBO would equip them with research reports and policy briefs. Example: Australia’s PBO helps legislators understand the long-term economic impact of proposed policies, ensuring fiscal discipline and responsible budgeting.
How do pre-Budget discussions contribute to a more transparent and democratic Budget-making process?
- Greater Legislative Involvement and Accountability: Pre-Budget discussions allow parliamentarians to voice public concerns, debate fiscal priorities, and influence resource allocation before the Budget is finalised. Example: In Germany, the Bundestag conducts pre-budget debates, ensuring the government considers legislative recommendations before finalizing financial plans.
- Improved Public Participation and Transparency: Open discussions increase public awareness and trust by making the Budget-making process more inclusive and participatory. Example: South Africa holds public consultations before the Budget, allowing citizens to provide inputs, and ensuring financial policies align with public needs.
- Better Coordination Among Subject Committees: Structured discussions help parliamentary committees collaborate effectively, leading to more informed scrutiny of sector-wise allocations. Example: In Sweden, parliamentary finance committees review preliminary budget proposals, enabling sector-specific recommendations before the final Budget is tabled.
Which global models of legislative Budget scrutiny can India learn from to enhance parliamentary engagement?
| Country |
Features
|
Example
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| United States – Congressional Budget Office (CBO) for Independent Analysis |
The U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides independent, non-partisan economic and budgetary analysis to assist lawmakers in evaluating fiscal policies. |
India could establish a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) for similar fiscal oversight. |
| United Kingdom – Strong Parliamentary Committee System: |
The UK’s House of Commons Treasury Committee scrutinizes budget proposals, questioning government officials and publishing reports on financial policy. |
In 2021, the Treasury Committee analyzed the economic impact of the UK Budget and made recommendations for pandemic recovery, influencing fiscal decisions. India can strengthen its Parliamentary Committees to enhance budgetary oversight. |
| Germany – Pre-Budget Consultations for Legislative Input: |
The Bundestag (German Parliament) conducts structured pre-Budget discussions, allowing legislators to debate fiscal priorities before finalizing budgetary allocations. |
Germany’s Medium-Term Financial Planning Framework ensures that multi-year fiscal policies align with economic goals. India could introduce pre-Budget discussions to improve transparency and parliamentary engagement. |
Way forward:
- Establish a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) for Independent Analysis: A PBO should be set up to provide non-partisan, expert-driven financial analysis to Parliament, similar to the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO). This would enhance legislative oversight, fiscal transparency, and informed decision-making by equipping parliamentarians with independent budget assessments.
- Institutionalize Pre-Budget Consultations and Strengthen Committee Oversight: Implement structured pre-Budget discussions involving parliamentary committees, policymakers, and stakeholders to ensure greater transparency and inclusivity in Budget-making.
Mains question for practice:
Question: “The growth of cabinet system has practically resulted in the marginalisation of the parliamentary supremacy.” Elucidate. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question addresses the broader theme of parliamentary supremacy being undermined by the executive. The budget being primarily an executive-driven process, with limited parliamentary influence, is a prime example of this marginalization.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the judiciary;
Why in the News?
On Friday (March 21, 2025), the Supreme Court stated that false information and rumours were being spread about an “incident” at the home of Delhi High Court Judge Justice Yashwant Varma, suggesting that this led to his transfer. The Court clarified that the transfer decision was unrelated to the incident.
What was the Supreme Court’s response to the reports regarding the incident at Justice Yashwant Varma’s residence?
- Rejection of Misinformation: The Supreme Court dismissed media reports about a “huge pile of cash” being recovered during a fire at Justice Varma’s residence. Example: It stated that rumours and misinformation were being spread, clarifying that the reports were not verified facts.
- Clarification on Transfer Proposal: The Court confirmed that Justice Varma’s transfer to Allahabad High Court was an independent decision, unrelated to the in-house enquiry into the incident. Example: It emphasized that the transfer process had been initiated separately and was being reviewed by the Collegium before the enquiry even began.
- Confidentiality of the Enquiry Process: The Supreme Court maintained that the in-house enquiry was confidential and aimed at preserving judicial integrity. Example: The Court cited the 2015 Additional District and Sessions Judge ‘X’ vs. Registrar General, MP High Court judgment, which ensures fairness in such proceedings.
Removal of Judges in the Higher Judiciary:
- Impeachment Process:
- Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts can only be removed by impeachment, which requires a motion signed by 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
- The impeachment motion is investigated by a three-member judicial committee, and if the committee finds merit in the allegations, Parliament votes on the motion.
- A 2/3rd majority is needed in both Houses for removal.
- Parliament can, however, consider a motion to impeach a judge according to the procedure laid down in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
What is in-house enquiry?
- The CJI can initiate an in-house inquiry in the event of serious allegations against a judge. This process involves the Chief Justice of the High Court submitting a report, and if the allegations are deemed serious, a three-member committee is constituted to investigate the matter.
- If the committee recommends removal, the CJI may advise the judge to resign. If the judge refuses, their judicial work is withdrawn, and impeachment proceedings may be initiated.
What is the legal precedence of it?
- Justice V. Ramaswami Case (1991): One of the first instances where an impeachment motion was attempted against a sitting Supreme Court judge, highlighting the importance of in-house mechanisms before formal parliamentary action.
- Additional District and Sessions Judge ‘X’ vs. Registrar General, High Court of Madhya Pradesh (2015): This case outlined the two-stage procedure for in-house enquiries, emphasizing exclusion of bias and ensuring due process in judicial investigations.
- In re: Justice C.S. Karnan (2017): The Supreme Court invoked its contempt jurisdiction against a sitting High Court judge, Justice C.S. Karnan, highlighting the limitations of in-house procedures when misconduct disrupts judicial functioning.
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Why did the Supreme Court emphasize that the transfer proposal for Justice Yashwant Varma was independent of the in-house enquiry?
- To Prevent Misinterpretation of Judicial Transfers: The Supreme Court clarified that the transfer was part of routine administrative decisions, not a punitive action linked to the enquiry. Example: Justice Varma’s transfer was to his parent High Court (Allahabad), where he would be ninth in seniority, a common practice for judges.
- To Uphold the Collegium’s Credibility: The Court ensured that the Collegium’s decisions were based on judicial requirements, not external events. Example: The Collegium followed its standard procedure of consulting judges and the Chief Justices of the concerned High Courts before deciding on the transfer.
- To Avoid Pre-Judgment of the Enquiry Outcome: If the transfer was seen as linked to the enquiry, it could imply guilt before a formal investigation was concluded. Example: The Court confirmed that the Delhi High Court Chief Justice had initiated the enquiry separately, even before the Collegium met on March 20, 2025.
- To Maintain Judicial Independence and Fairness: Judges must be free from undue influence, and linking transfers to allegations could undermine judicial autonomy. Example: The Court cited the in-house enquiry framework, which ensures that any probe follows due process before any action is taken.
- To Protect the Reputation of the Judiciary: Associating the transfer with allegations could harm the judge’s integrity and create unnecessary controversy. Example: The Supreme Court press note stressed that the transfer decision was made on administrative grounds, separate from any enquiry findings.
What is the process of judicial transfers in India?
- Initiation by the Chief Justice of India (CJI): The transfer of High Court judges is initiated by the CJI in consultation with the Collegium, which includes the four senior-most Supreme Court judges. Example: In 2021, Justice Sanjib Banerjee was transferred from the Madras High Court to the Meghalaya High Court, reportedly due to administrative reasons.
- Consultation with the Government and Affected Judges: The Union Law Ministry processes the recommendation and seeks the President’s approval. The judge being transferred is consulted, but their consent is not required. Example: Justice Akil Kureshi’s transfer from Gujarat High Court to Tripura High Court in 2019 sparked debates about judicial independence.
- Final Approval by the President of India: After receiving recommendations from the CJI and the Collegium, the President issues a formal order for the transfer under Article 222 of the Constitution. Example: Justice Vijaya Kapse-Tahilramani resigned in 2019 after being transferred from the Madras High Court to the Meghalaya High Court.
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How does the in-house enquiry procedure against sitting High Court judges ensure fairness and prevent bias?
- Two-Stage Investigation Process: The procedure involves an initial assessment by the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court, followed by a deeper probe if required, ensuring a systematic and impartial review. Example: In Justice Yashwant Varma’s case, the Delhi High Court Chief Justice first examined the allegations before forwarding a report to the Chief Justice of India (CJI) for further action.
- Principles of Natural Justice: The accused judge is given a fair opportunity to present their defense before any decision is made, preventing arbitrary actions. Example: If the CJI determines a deeper probe is needed, a three-member committee (two Chief Justices and one High Court judge) is formed, ensuring multiple perspectives in the investigation.
- Confidentiality to Protect Integrity: The enquiry remains confidential to prevent media trials and undue reputational damage before conclusions are drawn. Example: The Supreme Court’s press note stated that the findings of the Delhi High Court’s in-house enquiry would be examined privately before deciding on further action.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Transparency and Communication: The judiciary should proactively address misinformation by issuing timely clarifications and making non-confidential aspects of administrative decisions more accessible to prevent speculation and misinterpretation.
- Enhancing Institutional Safeguards: The in-house enquiry mechanism should be periodically reviewed to ensure procedural robustness, fairness, and adaptability while maintaining judicial integrity and independence.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy”. Comment. (2023)
Reason: The proposed transfer of a High Court judge, especially amidst “rumours” touches upon the independence of the judiciary. While the Supreme Court clarifies the transfer is unrelated to the “incident” and in-house inquiry, questions about maintaining judicial independence in the face of potential external pressures or perceptions remain pertinent.
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