Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance:

Question: Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? (2022)

Reason: This question explores India’s engagement with other regional groupings. India’s experience with BIMSTEC, its objectives, and the lessons learned in fostering regional cooperation can inform its approach and strategy as the chair of IORA. It also touches upon how India uses multilateral platforms to achieve its foreign policy goals, a key aspect of its IORA leadership.

Mentor’s Comment: The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) held its Council of Ministers (COM) meeting in Colombo on October 11, 2024, with the theme “Reinforcing Indian Ocean Identity.” Foreign ministers and senior officials from its 23 member countries attended the event. In 2024, many other countries, especially “dialogue partners” or those wanting to join as dialogue partners, showed great interest in the organization. IORA, founded 26 years ago, is believed to have been an idea originally proposed by former South African President Nelson Mandela.

Today’s editorial discusses issues related to the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and India’s role in it, which is useful for GS Paper 2 in International Relations.

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

New Delhi should create a strong base for effective governance that works at the local level and brings real impact.

What are the key priorities for India as it prepares to chair the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)?

Enhancing Funding Opportunities: India can engage private sector players like shipping companies (Maersk, Adani Ports), oil & gas firms (ONGC, Reliance), and marine tourism operators to contribute financially to IORA’s initiatives.
Strengthening Maritime Security & Safety: Expanding India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram to enhance real-time maritime surveillance and counter threats like piracy, illegal fishing, and trafficking.
Integrating Technology for Data Management & Policy Analysis: Promoting AI-driven marine data analytics to track ocean health, predict climate change impacts, and improve fisheries management across IORA nations.
Developing Maritime Education & Skill-Based Training: Partnering with institutions like IIT-Madras and NIOT (National Institute of Ocean Technology) to create specialized courses in marine economy, deep-sea exploration, and coastal governance.
Strengthening Blue Economy & Sustainable Practices: Collaborating with Australia for marine research, UAE for investment in sustainable fisheries, and Seychelles for traditional knowledge on marine conservation to develop eco-friendly economic growth models.

Why is funding a major challenge for IORA?

Dependence on Member Contributions: IORA’s budget is primarily dependent on contributions from its 23 member states, most of which are developing economies. For example, Only a few countries like Singapore, UAE, and France have the financial capability to contribute significantly, while others struggle to meet commitments.
Limited Private Sector Involvement: IORA lacks strong partnerships with private enterprises, which could provide alternative funding sources. For example, Industries related to shipping, oil & gas, fisheries, and marine tourism are key players in the region but are not formally involved in IORA’s funding model.
Comparatively Small Budget: IORA’s total annual budget is just a few million dollars, making it insufficient for large-scale maritime security, climate resilience, and economic development projects. For example, The Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), despite having only five members, has a $1.3 billion budget (2020-25)—significantly larger than IORA’s budget.
Expanding Scope of Activities: IORA is expanding into maritime safety, disaster management, technology, and blue economy initiatives, all of which require resource-intensive investments. For example, Implementing maritime surveillance systems and disaster risk management programs demands consistent funding, which is currently lacking.
Lack of a Dedicated Fundraising Mechanism: Unlike organizations like the ASEAN Development Fund, IORA does not have a structured mechanism to raise funds through external donors, financial institutions, or international aid agencies. For example, ASEAN collaborates with ADB (Asian Development Bank) and the World Bank for project funding, while IORA lacks such institutional financial backing.

How can it be addressed?

Diversifying Funding Sources: IORA should explore alternative funding mechanisms such as public-private partnerships (PPPs), external grants, and contributions from international financial institutions. Example: ASEAN collaborates with the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank for project funding, which IORA can emulate.
Enhancing Private Sector Engagement: Establish formal partnerships with shipping, energy, fisheries, and tourism industries to attract investment in key maritime projects. Example: Creating an IORA Business Forum to facilitate corporate sponsorships and private sector-driven development projects.
Setting Up a Dedicated IORA Development Fund: Establish a structured IORA Development Fund where member states, international donors, and regional banks contribute for long-term sustainability. Example: The ASEAN Development Fund (ADF) pools resources for regional projects, which IORA can replicate to support blue economy and maritime security initiatives.
Strengthening Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation: Strengthen financial partnerships with G20 economies, UN agencies, and regional economic blocs to access technical and financial assistance. Example: IORA can seek support from India’s Development Partnership Administration (DPA) or Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) for infrastructure and capacity-building programs.
Implementing a Tiered Membership Contribution Model: Introduce a differentiated contribution system where larger economies contribute more while smaller nations have flexible or in-kind contributions. Example: Organizations like the International Maritime Organization (IMO) use GDP-based contribution tiers to ensure fair burden-sharing among members.

India’s Role in IORA – Timeline of Key Initiatives

How does the Indian Ocean Region contribute to global trade and economic activities?

Major Trade and Energy Corridor: The Indian Ocean facilitates 75% of global maritime trade and 50% of daily oil consumption, making it a critical route for global commerce. The Strait of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz are key chokepoints for oil and goods transportation.
Rich Blue Economy and Marine Resources: The region generates $1 trillion in goods and services, including fisheries, aquaculture, and seabed resources. India, Indonesia, and Thailand have thriving fishing industries, while Mozambique and Madagascar are rich in offshore gas reserves.
Strategic Economic Hubs and Ports: Major ports like Singapore, Mumbai, Colombo, and Dubai serve as global transhipment and logistics hubs, driving regional and global trade. Gwadar (Pakistan) and Hambantota (Sri Lanka) are being developed as part of strategic maritime infrastructure projects.

Where can India leverage its strengths and partnerships to enhance IORA’s governance and effectiveness?

Maritime Security and Disaster Resilience: India can take the lead in strengthening maritime surveillance, anti-piracy measures, and disaster preparedness in the Indian Ocean region. Example: India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) can be expanded to assist IORA members in real-time maritime domain awareness.
Capacity Building and Skill Development: India can offer training programs, scholarships, and technical assistance to IORA members in areas like blue economy, digital governance, and climate adaptation. Example: The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program can be expanded to provide skill development for professionals from IORA nations.
Sustainable Blue Economy Initiatives: India can collaborate with IORA countries to promote marine biotechnology, sustainable fisheries, and ocean-based renewable energy. Example: India’s Deep Ocean Mission and expertise in offshore wind energy can be shared with IORA nations for sustainable development.
Trade and Connectivity Infrastructure: India can enhance regional trade and connectivity through port modernization, maritime logistics, and blue economy-driven trade facilitation. Example: The Sagarmala Project can be leveraged to assist IORA nations in upgrading port infrastructure and coastal shipping networks.
Multilateral Partnerships and Development Finance: India can work with Quad, G20, BRICS, and ASEAN to secure additional funding and policy coordination for IORA’s initiatives. Example: India’s leadership in the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) can be extended to help IORA nations build climate-resilient maritime infrastructure.

Way forward:

Institutional Strengthening & Financial Sustainability: IORA should establish a dedicated development fund, diversify revenue streams through public-private partnerships, and enhance cooperation with global financial institutions like the World Bank and ADB to ensure long-term financial stability.
Strategic & Inclusive Engagement: India must promote technology-driven governance, capacity-building initiatives, and regional connectivity projects while fostering multilateral partnerships with ASEAN, Quad, and BRICS to enhance IORA’s strategic relevance and effectiveness.

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

India’s marginalised Parliament in budgetary affairs

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related to Budget;

Why in the News?

The current budget process reduces the involvement of elected representatives, weakening democratic accountability.

How does the current budget process reduce the role of elected representatives and weaken democratic accountability?

Executive Monopoly Over Budget Formulation: The Budget is drafted exclusively by the Finance Ministry, with even Cabinet Ministers kept unaware until its presentation in the Lok Sabha. Example: Unlike legislative bills, the Union Budget is not subjected to extensive cabinet discussions before being tabled in Parliament.
Lack of Pre-Budget Consultations: Parliamentarians do not have an institutional mechanism to provide input before the Budget is finalized. Example: In contrast to countries like the UK, where parliamentary committees discuss budget priorities in advance, India lacks such structured engagement.
Limited Role of the Rajya Sabha: The Upper House has no direct power to amend or reject the Budget, reducing its ability to scrutinize financial policies. Example: The Finance Minister, even if a Rajya Sabha member, cannot vote on the Budget in the Lok Sabha, where financial matters are decided.
Weak Oversight by Parliamentary Committees: Parliamentary committees do not have the authority to modify budget proposals or demand policy changes. Example: Department-related Standing Committees review Demands for Grants but can only make recommendations, which the government is not bound to accept.
Time Constraints and Superficial Debates: The Budget session allows limited time for discussion, leading to rushed approvals without in-depth scrutiny. Example: In many cases, the Guillotine Process is used, where multiple Demands for Grants are passed without discussion due to time limitations.

What is the Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)?

A Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) is an independent, non-partisan institution that provides objective analysis of government budgets, fiscal policies, and economic forecasts to assist lawmakers in informed decision-making. It enhances legislative oversight, ensures transparency, and improves accountability in public finance management. Examples include the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) and Canada’s PBO.

What about the constitutional status of the Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)?

There is no explicit mention of a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) in the Indian Constitution. However, its establishment can be linked to broader constitutional provisions related to financial oversight and legislative accountability:

Article 112 (Annual Financial Statement) – The Union Budget is presented before Parliament, which has the power to scrutinize and approve it. A PBO can strengthen this oversight by providing independent budgetary analysis.
Article 266 & 267 (Consolidated and Contingency Funds of India) – Parliament controls government expenditure, and a PBO can assist in evaluating the fiscal implications of such spending.
Article 148-151 (Comptroller and Auditor General – CAG) – While CAG audits past expenditures, a PBO would provide forward-looking budgetary insights to Parliament.
Article 105 (Powers and Privileges of Parliament) – Parliament has the right to seek information on financial matters, and a PBO could serve as a resource for unbiased fiscal analysis.

Why is the establishment of a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) considered essential for fiscal oversight?

Independent and Data-Driven Budget Analysis: A PBO would provide legislators with non-partisan, expert analysis of government spending, revenue forecasts, and fiscal policies. Example: The U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) conducts independent evaluations of federal budgets, ensuring transparency and evidence-based policy decisions.
Enhanced Legislative Scrutiny and Accountability: It would strengthen Parliament’s ability to evaluate the financial implications of policies and hold the executive accountable. Example: Countries like Canada and the UK have PBOs that assess fiscal policies, preventing governments from making unrealistic budgetary claims.
Support for Informed Decision-Making by Legislators: Parliamentarians often lack technical expertise in financial matters; a PBO would equip them with research reports and policy briefs. Example: Australia’s PBO helps legislators understand the long-term economic impact of proposed policies, ensuring fiscal discipline and responsible budgeting.

How do pre-Budget discussions contribute to a more transparent and democratic Budget-making process?

Greater Legislative Involvement and Accountability: Pre-Budget discussions allow parliamentarians to voice public concerns, debate fiscal priorities, and influence resource allocation before the Budget is finalised. Example: In Germany, the Bundestag conducts pre-budget debates, ensuring the government considers legislative recommendations before finalizing financial plans.
Improved Public Participation and Transparency: Open discussions increase public awareness and trust by making the Budget-making process more inclusive and participatory. Example: South Africa holds public consultations before the Budget, allowing citizens to provide inputs, and ensuring financial policies align with public needs.
Better Coordination Among Subject Committees: Structured discussions help parliamentary committees collaborate effectively, leading to more informed scrutiny of sector-wise allocations. Example: In Sweden, parliamentary finance committees review preliminary budget proposals, enabling sector-specific recommendations before the final Budget is tabled.

Which global models of legislative Budget scrutiny can India learn from to enhance parliamentary engagement?

Country	Features	Example
United States – Congressional Budget Office (CBO) for Independent Analysis	The U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides independent, non-partisan economic and budgetary analysis to assist lawmakers in evaluating fiscal policies.	India could establish a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) for similar fiscal oversight.
United Kingdom – Strong Parliamentary Committee System:	The UK’s House of Commons Treasury Committee scrutinizes budget proposals, questioning government officials and publishing reports on financial policy.	In 2021, the Treasury Committee analyzed the economic impact of the UK Budget and made recommendations for pandemic recovery, influencing fiscal decisions. India can strengthen its Parliamentary Committees to enhance budgetary oversight.
Germany – Pre-Budget Consultations for Legislative Input:	The Bundestag (German Parliament) conducts structured pre-Budget discussions, allowing legislators to debate fiscal priorities before finalizing budgetary allocations.	Germany’s Medium-Term Financial Planning Framework ensures that multi-year fiscal policies align with economic goals. India could introduce pre-Budget discussions to improve transparency and parliamentary engagement.

Way forward:

Establish a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) for Independent Analysis: A PBO should be set up to provide non-partisan, expert-driven financial analysis to Parliament, similar to the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO). This would enhance legislative oversight, fiscal transparency, and informed decision-making by equipping parliamentarians with independent budget assessments.
Institutionalize Pre-Budget Consultations and Strengthen Committee Oversight: Implement structured pre-Budget discussions involving parliamentary committees, policymakers, and stakeholders to ensure greater transparency and inclusivity in Budget-making.

Mains question for practice:

Question: “The growth of cabinet system has practically resulted in the marginalisation of the parliamentary supremacy.” Elucidate. (UPSC 2024)

Reason: This question addresses the broader theme of parliamentary supremacy being undermined by the executive. The budget being primarily an executive-driven process, with limited parliamentary influence, is a prime example of this marginalization.

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Judicial Reforms

Judge’s transfer is not related to ‘rumours’: SC

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related to the judiciary;

Why in the News?

On Friday (March 21, 2025), the Supreme Court stated that false information and rumours were being spread about an “incident” at the home of Delhi High Court Judge Justice Yashwant Varma, suggesting that this led to his transfer. The Court clarified that the transfer decision was unrelated to the incident.

What was the Supreme Court’s response to the reports regarding the incident at Justice Yashwant Varma’s residence?

Rejection of Misinformation: The Supreme Court dismissed media reports about a “huge pile of cash” being recovered during a fire at Justice Varma’s residence. Example: It stated that rumours and misinformation were being spread, clarifying that the reports were not verified facts.
Clarification on Transfer Proposal: The Court confirmed that Justice Varma’s transfer to Allahabad High Court was an independent decision, unrelated to the in-house enquiry into the incident. Example: It emphasized that the transfer process had been initiated separately and was being reviewed by the Collegium before the enquiry even began.
Confidentiality of the Enquiry Process: The Supreme Court maintained that the in-house enquiry was confidential and aimed at preserving judicial integrity. Example: The Court cited the 2015 Additional District and Sessions Judge ‘X’ vs. Registrar General, MP High Court judgment, which ensures fairness in such proceedings.

What is in-house enquiry?

An in-house enquiry is an internal judicial procedure to investigate allegations against sitting High Court and Supreme Court judges. It ensures fairness, follows principles of natural justice, and maintains confidentiality. The process involves preliminary assessment by the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court, followed by a deeper probe if necessary.

What is the legal precedence of it?

Justice V. Ramaswami Case (1991): One of the first instances where an impeachment motion was attempted against a sitting Supreme Court judge, highlighting the importance of in-house mechanisms before formal parliamentary action.
Additional District and Sessions Judge ‘X’ vs. Registrar General, High Court of Madhya Pradesh (2015): This case outlined the two-stage procedure for in-house enquiries, emphasizing exclusion of bias and ensuring due process in judicial investigations.
In re: Justice C.S. Karnan (2017): The Supreme Court invoked its contempt jurisdiction against a sitting High Court judge, Justice C.S. Karnan, highlighting the limitations of in-house procedures when misconduct disrupts judicial functioning.

Why did the Supreme Court emphasize that the transfer proposal for Justice Yashwant Varma was independent of the in-house enquiry?

To Prevent Misinterpretation of Judicial Transfers: The Supreme Court clarified that the transfer was part of routine administrative decisions, not a punitive action linked to the enquiry. Example: Justice Varma’s transfer was to his parent High Court (Allahabad), where he would be ninth in seniority, a common practice for judges.
To Uphold the Collegium’s Credibility: The Court ensured that the Collegium’s decisions were based on judicial requirements, not external events. Example: The Collegium followed its standard procedure of consulting judges and the Chief Justices of the concerned High Courts before deciding on the transfer.
To Avoid Pre-Judgment of the Enquiry Outcome: If the transfer was seen as linked to the enquiry, it could imply guilt before a formal investigation was concluded. Example: The Court confirmed that the Delhi High Court Chief Justice had initiated the enquiry separately, even before the Collegium met on March 20, 2025.
To Maintain Judicial Independence and Fairness: Judges must be free from undue influence, and linking transfers to allegations could undermine judicial autonomy. Example: The Court cited the in-house enquiry framework, which ensures that any probe follows due process before any action is taken.
To Protect the Reputation of the Judiciary: Associating the transfer with allegations could harm the judge’s integrity and create unnecessary controversy. Example: The Supreme Court press note stressed that the transfer decision was made on administrative grounds, separate from any enquiry findings.

What is the process of judicial transfers in India?

Initiation by the Chief Justice of India (CJI): The transfer of High Court judges is initiated by the CJI in consultation with the Collegium, which includes the four senior-most Supreme Court judges. Example: In 2021, Justice Sanjib Banerjee was transferred from the Madras High Court to the Meghalaya High Court, reportedly due to administrative reasons.
Consultation with the Government and Affected Judges: The Union Law Ministry processes the recommendation and seeks the President’s approval. The judge being transferred is consulted, but their consent is not required. Example: Justice Akil Kureshi’s transfer from Gujarat High Court to Tripura High Court in 2019 sparked debates about judicial independence.
Final Approval by the President of India: After receiving recommendations from the CJI and the Collegium, the President issues a formal order for the transfer under Article 222 of the Constitution. Example: Justice Vijaya Kapse-Tahilramani resigned in 2019 after being transferred from the Madras High Court to the Meghalaya High Court.

How does the in-house enquiry procedure against sitting High Court judges ensure fairness and prevent bias?

Two-Stage Investigation Process: The procedure involves an initial assessment by the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court, followed by a deeper probe if required, ensuring a systematic and impartial review. Example: In Justice Yashwant Varma’s case, the Delhi High Court Chief Justice first examined the allegations before forwarding a report to the Chief Justice of India (CJI) for further action.
Principles of Natural Justice: The accused judge is given a fair opportunity to present their defense before any decision is made, preventing arbitrary actions. Example: If the CJI determines a deeper probe is needed, a three-member committee (two Chief Justices and one High Court judge) is formed, ensuring multiple perspectives in the investigation.
Confidentiality to Protect Integrity: The enquiry remains confidential to prevent media trials and undue reputational damage before conclusions are drawn. Example: The Supreme Court’s press note stated that the findings of the Delhi High Court’s in-house enquiry would be examined privately before deciding on further action.

Way forward:

Strengthening Transparency and Communication: The judiciary should proactively address misinformation by issuing timely clarifications and making non-confidential aspects of administrative decisions more accessible to prevent speculation and misinterpretation.
Enhancing Institutional Safeguards: The in-house enquiry mechanism should be periodically reviewed to ensure procedural robustness, fairness, and adaptability while maintaining judicial integrity and independence.

Mains PYQ:

Question: “Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy”. Comment. (2023)

Reason: The proposed transfer of a High Court judge, especially amidst “rumours” touches upon the independence of the judiciary. While the Supreme Court clarifies the transfer is unrelated to the “incident” and in-house inquiry, questions about maintaining judicial independence in the face of potential external pressures or perceptions remain pertinent.

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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

The assault on multilateralism and international law

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related to multilateral institutions;

Why in the News?

The US’s independent actions could lead to global pushback, but they also create an opportunity for non-Western nations to step up as leaders.

What are the key multilateral institutions and agreements from which the U.S. has signalled withdrawal under the Trump administration?

World Health Organization (WHO): The U.S. announced withdrawal in 2020, accusing WHO of mishandling the COVID-19 pandemic and being overly influenced by China.
United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC): The U.S. exited in 2018, citing alleged bias against Israel and ineffective handling of human rights abuses.
Paris Climate Agreement: The U.S. formally withdrew in 2020, arguing that the agreement unfairly burdened its economy while benefiting competitors like China and India. Example: The withdrawal slowed global climate efforts, as the U.S. is one of the largest carbon emitters.
International Criminal Court (ICC): The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, rejecting its authority over American troops and allies. Example: Sanctions were placed on ICC officials investigating alleged U.S. war crimes in Afghanistan.
World Trade Organization (WTO): The U.S. blocked appointments to the WTO Appellate Body, crippling its ability to resolve trade disputes. Example: This led to a breakdown in the global trade dispute resolution system, impacting countries like India and China.

What is the DEFUND Act?

The Disengaging Entirely from the United Nations Debacle (DEFUND) Act is a proposed U.S. legislation introduced by Senator Mike Lee. It seeks to completely withdraw the U.S. from the United Nations (UN), repeal key participation laws, cut all funding, and revoke diplomatic immunity for UN officials within the U.S.

Why does the proposed DEFUND Act pose a threat to the legitimacy of the United Nations?

Financial Crisis for the UN: The U.S. is the largest financial contributor to the UN, funding around 22% of its budget. The DEFUND Act would halt all U.S. contributions, severely affecting UN operations. Example: The UN’s peacekeeping missions and humanitarian aid programs in conflict zones like Syria and Yemen would face funding shortages.
Weakening of Multilateral Cooperation: The Act would repeal key legislation like the United Nations Participation Act of 1945, severing U.S. engagement with the UN. This could encourage other nations to follow suit, undermining the UN’s credibility. Example: Without U.S. involvement, the UN Security Council may struggle to enforce resolutions, reducing its effectiveness in global crisis management.
Legal and Diplomatic Challenges: The Act would revoke the diplomatic immunity of UN officials in the U.S., disrupting UN functions and diplomatic activities. Example: The UN Headquarters in New York might face operational difficulties, making it harder to conduct international negotiations.

How has the U.S. administration’s stance on the International Criminal Court (ICC) impacted global accountability for human rights violations?

Undermining International Justice Mechanisms: The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, accusing the court of targeting American personnel and allies. This weakened the ICC’s ability to investigate war crimes and crimes against humanity, particularly in conflict zones like Afghanistan and Palestine.
Encouraging Non-Cooperation with the ICC: The U.S.’s non-recognition of the ICC has emboldened other nations to ignore its rulings, reducing its global influence. Countries under investigation may refuse cooperation, limiting the court’s effectiveness in ensuring accountability.
- Example: Israel rejected ICC jurisdiction in its war crimes probe in Palestinian territories, citing U.S. opposition to the investigation.
Weakening the Principle of Universal Justice: By discrediting the ICC and blocking investigations, the U.S. has set a precedent for selective justice, where powerful nations can evade accountability while weaker states remain subject to scrutiny.
- Example: The ICC struggles to prosecute major powers like China or Russia, as the U.S.’s stance encourages a lack of enforcement in high-stakes human rights cases.

What are the chances for non-Western nations to assume global leadership roles?

Expanding Economic and Political Influence – Emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil are increasing their global footprint through trade, technology, and strategic alliances.
Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) enhances its economic influence across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Strengthening Regional and Multilateral Institutions – Non-Western nations are actively shaping global governance through regional organizations and alternative institutions.
Example: The BRICS bloc (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) launched the New Development Bank (NDB) as an alternative to Western-led financial institutions.
Leadership in Global Crisis Management – Developing nations are taking initiative in addressing global challenges like climate change, health crises, and digital transformation.
Example: India’s Vaccine Maitri initiative supplied COVID-19 vaccines to over 100 countries, reinforcing its role in global health diplomacy.

What would be the impact on India?

Challenges to Multilateralism and Global Governance: The U.S. exit from key institutions like the UN, WHO, and WTO weakens the global rules-based order, making international cooperation more fragmented. India, which strongly supports multilateral diplomacy, may face difficulties in global negotiations, including trade, climate change, and security.
- Example: The U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement (2017) reduced global climate finance commitments, impacting India’s renewable energy goals.
Opportunity for India to Assume Leadership: As the U.S. retreats, India can play a more prominent role in shaping multilateral decision-making, advocating for reforms in the UNSC and WTO, and positioning itself as a bridge between developing and developed nations.
- Example: During the G-20 Foreign Ministers’ Meeting (2025), India emphasized the need for inclusive multilateralism, strengthening its diplomatic standing.

Way forward:

Strengthen Multilateral Leadership – India should actively engage in UN reforms, WTO negotiations, and climate diplomacy, positioning itself as a stabilizing force in global governance.
Diversify Strategic Alliances – India must deepen partnerships with EU, ASEAN, and African nations, enhancing trade, security, and diplomatic ties to counterbalance U.S. disengagement.

Mains PYQ:

Q “Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic. (UPSC 2020)

Reason: The World Health Organization (WHO) has faced calls for withdrawal by certain nations, highlighting a challenge to multilateral institutions. This PYQ directly assesses the role and, by extension, the relevance and effectiveness of the WHO in a global crisis, which is pertinent to discussions on the assault on multilateralism.

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Right To Privacy

The challenge of policing digital giants

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Digital Market challenges;

Why in the News?

On November 18, 2024, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) imposed a fine of ₹213.14 crore on Meta Platforms, Inc., for abusing its dominant position through WhatsApp’s 2021 Privacy Policy. This landmark decision underscores the growing intersection of competition law and data privacy, marking a significant step in regulating digital markets in India.

What were the key findings of the Competition Commission of India (CCI)?

Abuse of Dominant Position in OTT Messaging & Online Advertising: CCI found that WhatsApp’s 2021 privacy policy update forced users to mandatorily consent to data sharing with Meta (Facebook, Instagram), strengthening WhatsApp’s dominance.
Unfair Data Collection & Competitive Advantage: Meta leveraged WhatsApp’s vast user base to collect personal data, creating an unfair advantage in digital advertising by refining targeted ads.
Potential Harm to Consumer Privacy & Competition: The policy update allowed cross-platform data sharing, which CCI considered an unfair trade practice that compromised user privacy and created barriers for rival messaging apps.
Violation of Fair Market Practices & Entry Barriers: The data-sharing policy made it difficult for new entrants to compete, as they lacked access to similar user insights, reinforcing Meta’s market position. Example: Startups like Telegram faced challenges in growing due to WhatsApp’s entrenched market power and data-driven network effects.
Imposition of Fine & Behavioral Remedies: CCI fined Meta ₹213.14 crore and imposed a five-year ban on sharing WhatsApp user data with Facebook and Instagram for advertising purposes. Example: This aimed to limit Meta’s ability to exploit its dominant position and create a level playing field in India’s digital ecosystem.

Why did the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) grant a stay on CCI’s five-year ban and penalty imposed on Meta?

Prima Facie Case for Meta: NCLAT found grounds to review CCI’s decision, indicating that Meta’s appeal had merit and required further examination. Example: Meta argued that its privacy policy update did not force users but offered them a choice, which needed deeper legal scrutiny.
Irreparable Harm to Meta’s Business: The five-year ban on sharing WhatsApp user data with Facebook and Instagram could cause significant financial and operational disruption to Meta’s business. Example: Meta claimed that restricting data integration would affect its targeted advertising model, reducing its revenue from India.
Dominance and anti-competitive effects: NCLAT noted that CCI’s conclusions on abuse of dominance and anti-competitive effects required further legal and economic analysis before enforcement. Example: The tribunal wanted to assess whether the policy update genuinely harmed consumers or merely provided better services through personalized ads.
Balance of Convenience: The tribunal ruled that temporarily halting the penalty and data-sharing ban would not cause immediate harm to consumers but would protect Meta from disproportionate damages while the case was under review. Example: If Meta had to immediately comply but later won the appeal, reversing the business impact would be difficult.
Conditional Relief with Partial Penalty Payment: NCLAT granted the stay but directed Meta to deposit 50% of the ₹213.14 crore penalty, ensuring some accountability while legal proceedings continued. Example: This allowed Meta to continue operations without full compliance but ensured it remained engaged in the legal process.

How does data play a role in creating and sustaining dominance in digital markets?

Data-Driven Network Effects: More users generate more data, which improves algorithms and services, attracting even more users, creating a self-reinforcing loop. Example: Google’s search engine improves as more users search, making its results better than competitors, reinforcing its market dominance.
Competitive Barrier Through Data Aggregation: Large tech firms collect massive user data across multiple services, making it hard for new entrants to compete due to a lack of comparable datasets. Example: Meta collects data from Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp, allowing it to offer highly personalized ads, making it difficult for smaller ad platforms to compete.
Monetization & Market Lock-In: Companies use vast data pools to refine targeted advertising, personalize user experiences, and create dependencies, discouraging users from switching. Example: Amazon leverages consumer purchase data to optimize product recommendations, making it harder for new e-commerce platforms to attract customers.

Which global regulatory actions have been taken against Meta and Google for their anti-competitive practices?

Heavy Antitrust Fines: Governments have imposed billions in fines on Meta and Google for abusing their market dominance. Example: The European Commission fined Google €8 billion across three cases, including unfair dominance in mobile operating systems (Android) and online advertising.
- Similarly, the Bundeskartellamt (Germany’s Federal Cartel Office) found Meta guilty of merging user data without consent, violating EU competition law and GDPR.

Structural and Behavioral Restrictions: Authorities have enforced regulatory measures like breaking up monopolistic control, imposing interoperability, and preventing self-preferencing. Example: The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) filed a lawsuit against Meta for acquiring Instagram and WhatsApp to eliminate competition.
- The Digital Markets Act (DMA) in the EU now mandates that dominant firms like Meta and Google ensure fair access to platforms, prevent self-preferencing, and allow third-party data-sharing.

What should be amendments in India’s Competition Act, 2002 to address data-centric monopolies? (Way forward)

Recognizing “Data Monopolization” as a Form of Market Power: The Act should explicitly define data dominance as a key factor in determining market power and abuse of dominance.
- Example: The EU’s Digital Markets Act (DMA) considers large data control a sign of dominance. India could adopt similar provisions to regulate companies like Meta and Google that leverage massive user data to eliminate competition.

Mandatory Interoperability and Data-Sharing Regulations: The Act should mandate interoperability and restrict exclusive data-sharing agreements that create entry barriers for competitors.
- Example: In Germany, Meta was restricted from combining user data across platforms without explicit consent. Similarly, India could prevent dominant firms from self-preferencing their services and enforce data portability rules to promote fair competition.

Mains PYQ:

Q How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the educational system in the country? Elaborate your answer.” (UPSC 2020)

Reason: This question underscores the significant impact of digital platforms on key sectors. The influence of digital giants extends to education (e.g., online learning platforms, content distribution), highlighting their pervasive role and the need for understanding and potentially regulating their impact.

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Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

Telecom tribunal reforms to handle data protection pleas

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Data protection;

Why in the News?

In early January this year, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) published the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025 under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.

What are the key criticisms of the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025?

Lack of Independence in the Data Protection Board (DPB): The Union government has full discretion in appointing DPB members, raising concerns about executive overreach and lack of independent oversight. Example: Since the DPB has quasi-judicial functions, government control over appointments could compromise its impartiality in handling data protection disputes.
Inefficiency in the Appellate Mechanism: Appeals from DPB decisions will be heard by the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT), which is already overburdened with cases. Example: As of early 2025, 3,448 cases were pending in TDSAT, making it unrealistic to resolve data protection appeals within the required six-month timeline.
Weak Digital Infrastructure for Appeals: The draft Rules require appeals to be filed digitally, but TDSAT’s website and case management systems lack efficiency and transparency. Example: The TRAI Annual Report (2023) mentioned a new legal case management system, but its effectiveness and implementation status remain unclear.

Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025

What is the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT)?

The Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) is a quasi-judicial body in India established in 2000 under the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997.
It resolves disputes related to telecommunications, broadcasting, and information technology and also serves as an appellate body for regulatory decisions.

Why is the appointment of a technical member with expertise in data protection considered necessary for the TDSAT?

Complexity of Data Protection Issues: Data protection cases involve legal principles like consent, data processing, storage, and unauthorized use, which differ from telecom disputes. Example: A case involving unauthorized data sharing by a tech company requires expertise in privacy laws, which a telecom specialist may not possess.
Mismatch Between Existing Expertise and New Responsibilities: Section 14C of the TRAI Act, 1997 allows TDSAT members with expertise in telecommunications, technology, commerce, or administration, but not in data protection. Example: TDSAT is well-equipped for telecom disputes (e.g., spectrum allocation cases) but lacks specialists to handle data privacy violations under the DPDP Act, 2023.
Need for a Legal Amendment to Ensure Specialization: Amending Section 14C of the TRAI Act to include data protection as a required expertise will help TDSAT make informed decisions. Example: If a social media platform misuses personal data, a technical member with privacy law knowledge can ensure proper adjudication.

How does the increasing caseload of the TDSAT impact its ability to handle appeals from the DPB within the stipulated six-month timeline?

High Pending Case Load: As of early 2025, 3,448 cases remain unresolved in TDSAT, making it difficult to accommodate additional data protection appeals. Example: If a major data breach case is filed, it may face delays due to the backlog of telecom and broadcasting disputes.
Burden of New Telecommunications Act Cases: The recently enacted Telecommunications Act, 2023 will increase TDSAT’s caseload, further stretching its resources. Example: Disputes over telecom licensing and spectrum allocation could slow down hearings on personal data protection violations.
Limited Judicial and Technical Expertise: In January 2025, TDSAT had only one technical member and no judicial member, raising concerns about fair adjudication. Example: Without a judicial expert, appeals related to data misuse by companies may not receive proper legal scrutiny.
Structural Capacity Constraints: TDSAT has a single bench, making it impossible to efficiently handle multiple categories of appeals simultaneously. Example: A delay in telecom tariff disputes could push back hearings on privacy-related cases filed under the DPDP Act, 2023.

Way forward:

Strengthening TDSAT’s Capacity: Increase the number of benches and appoint members with expertise in data protection and privacy laws to handle DPB appeals efficiently. Example: Amending Section 14C of the TRAI Act, 1997 to include data protection specialists can ensure proper adjudication.
Independent and Efficient DPB: Ensure autonomy in DPB appointments and establish a dedicated appellate body for data protection cases to reduce TDSAT’s burden. Example: Setting up a Data Protection Appellate Tribunal (DPAT) with specialized judges and technical members can improve efficiency.

Mains PYQ:

Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. (2017)

Reason: It touches upon the importance of the structure and appointment processes within judicial bodies, which is a relevant underlying theme also present in the discussion about the need for a data protection expert within the TDSAT.

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

A regional divide in blue-collar worker migration from India

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Population & Associated Issues

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Migration; Remittances;

Why in the News?

Recent data show a decline in remittances from Gulf countries to India, while contributions from advanced economies have grown.

Why has the share of remittances from Gulf countries to India declined while contributions from advanced economies have increased?

Wage Stagnation and Cost of Living in the Gulf: Wages in Gulf countries have remained relatively stagnant, while the cost of living has increased, reducing the savings and ability to send money home of Indian workers. Example: The UAE introduced a Value Added Tax (VAT) in 2018, increasing living costs for migrant workers.
Shift in Migration Patterns Toward High-Income Countries: More Indian professionals and skilled workers are migrating to advanced economies like the U.S., Canada, and the U.K., where salaries are higher. Example: The number of Indian students and skilled workers in Canada has surged, contributing to rising remittances from the country.
Stringent Localization Policies in the Gulf: Gulf nations have implemented employment nationalization policies that push for localization in jobs (e.g., Saudization in Saudi Arabia, Nitaqat in UAE), shrinking opportunities for foreign workers, including Indians.
Depreciation of Gulf Currencies Against the U.S. Dollar: The exchange rates of Gulf currencies, which are tied to U.S. dollar, have not appreciated significantly, while the Indian rupee has remained relatively stable. Example: A stronger U.S. dollar means remittances from the U.S. convert to more Indian rupees compared to Gulf remittances.
Expansion of India’s IT and Healthcare Workforce Abroad: Skilled professionals in IT, healthcare, and finance are securing jobs in developed countries, leading to increased remittances from these sectors. Example: Indian tech workers in the U.S. under the H-1B visa program send substantial remittances back home, contributing to the U.S.’s growing share.

Global Migration & Remittance Shifts: How India Compares with Other Nations	Traditional Remittance Sources	New Migration Trends	Key Drivers of Change
India	Gulf countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar)	U.S., Canada, U.K., Germany	Wage stagnation in the Gulf, rise in high-skilled migration, better job opportunities in advanced economies
Philippines	Middle East, Southeast Asia	U.S., Canada, Australia	Strong demand for healthcare workers, education-driven migration, better worker rights in Western nations
Vietnam	Japan, South Korea, Taiwan	U.S., Europe, Australia	Economic ties with Western economies, investment in skilled workforce
Mexico	U.S.	Europe, South America	Stricter U.S. immigration policies, expansion of trade ties with Spain and Latin America
Bangladesh	Gulf countries, Malaysia	Limited shift; still Gulf-dependent	Fewer high-skilled migration pathways, reliance on traditional labor jobs
Pakistan	Saudi Arabia, UAE	Minimal change; remains Gulf-dependent	Economic constraints, limited alternative migration routes

What are the reasons behind the decline in the number of blue-collar workers emigrating from the Southern States to the Gulf?

Improved Employment Opportunities in India: Economic growth and industrial expansion in southern states have created more local job opportunities, reducing the need for migration. Example: Tamil Nadu and Telangana have seen growth in manufacturing (automobiles, electronics) and IT sectors, offering better wages compared to low-paying Gulf jobs.
Stringent Gulf Employment Policies & Localization Programs: Gulf nations have implemented policies like Saudization and Emiratization, prioritizing local workers over foreign laborers, reducing demand for Indian blue-collar workers. Example: Saudi Arabia’s Nitaqat system has restricted Indian employment in sectors like retail and construction.
Higher Migration Costs and Reduced Financial Returns: The cost of migration, including visa fees, recruitment charges, and living expenses, has risen, while wages in the Gulf have remained stagnant, making migration less attractive. Example: In Kerala, many workers are opting for European destinations (e.g., Italy, Germany) instead of the Gulf due to better wages and worker rights.

How has the shift in migration patterns impacted States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and West Bengal in terms of remittance inflows?

Slower Growth in Remittance Inflows: These states still send large numbers of workers to the Gulf, where wages and remittances are lower compared to advanced economies. Example: Despite high migration from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, their share in India’s total remittances remains low (around 3%), while Kerala and Maharashtra, with migrants in high-income countries, receive a higher share.
Limited Economic Upliftment Due to Lower Earnings: Since Gulf remittances have lower financial returns, households in these states see limited improvements in savings and investments. Example: While Tamil Nadu and Kerala benefit from higher wages in the U.S. and the U.K., families in Rajasthan and West Bengal largely rely on low-wage Gulf jobs, leading to slower economic mobility.
Higher Economic Vulnerability and Migration Dependency: With fewer alternative employment opportunities, many continue to migrate to the Gulf despite lower wages, reinforcing economic dependence on remittances. Example: Unlike Punjab, where migration to Canada has increased financial stability, states like Bihar still rely on remittances from Gulf labor, leaving them more vulnerable to economic downturns in the region.

Which factors contribute to the continued high migration from northern and eastern States to the Gulf despite lower financial returns?

Skill Development and Certification Programs: Initiatives like the Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY) aim to enhance the skills of Indian workers, making them eligible for higher-paying jobs abroad. Example: The program aligns skill training with international standards, increasing employment prospects in advanced economies.
Bilateral Agreements and Labour Welfare Measures: India has signed labor agreements with Gulf countries to ensure better working conditions, fair wages, and legal protection for migrant workers. Example: The India-UAE MoU on Labor Cooperation provides safeguards against exploitation and ensures wage protection.

Way forward:

Enhancing High-Skilled Migration Pathways: The government should strengthen bilateral agreements with high-income countries to facilitate the migration of skilled professionals, particularly in IT, healthcare, and engineering.
- Expanding initiatives like the India-Germany Skilled Workers Pact and negotiating better visa policies with the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. will ensure higher remittance inflows.
Skill Development and Certification for Diversified Destinations: To reduce dependence on Gulf remittances, India should invest in internationally recognized skill training through programs like Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and collaborate with European and East Asian countries for labor mobility agreements.

Mains PYQ:

Q Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades. (2015)

Reason: This PYQ asks for a discussion of changes in labour migration trends over a significant historical period (the last four decades) and across both internal and external migration.

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e-Commerce: The New Boom

The dystopian side of Insta-commerce

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Gig Workers related issues;

Why in the News?

Startup founders publicly claimed to support gig workers’ rights but secretly resist laws that would actually protect them.

What is the nature of employment in urban labour chowks and mazdoor mandis?

Daily Wage and Informal Work: Workers gather at labour chowks every morning, hoping to be hired for the day. Example: Construction workers in Delhi’s Kashmere Gate labour chowk wait for contractors to hire them for masonry or painting jobs.
Highly Competitive and Unstable: Large numbers of workers compete for limited jobs, often accepting lower wages out of desperation. Example: In Mumbai’s Dadar labour market, carpenters and plumbers rush to secure work before others.
Exploitative Hiring Practices: Employers and thekedars (middlemen) negotiate wages, often offering the lowest possible rates. Example: In Ahmedabad, daily wage workers in textile markets are hired at rates well below the minimum wage.
Lack of Social Security and Benefits: No job security, health benefits, or pensions; workers are paid only for the day they work. Example: Brick kiln workers in Hyderabad have no accident coverage despite working in hazardous conditions.
Piece-Rate and Task-Based Payment: Workers are often paid per unit of work completed rather than a fixed wage. Example: In Chennai’s wholesale vegetable markets, loaders are paid per sack carried rather than for the number of hours worked.

Who benefits the most from the presence of thekedars in the labour market?

Employers Benefit from Lower Labour Costs: Thekedars help employers negotiate lower wages and better terms by creating a competitive environment among workers. This allows employers to maximize profits by minimizing labor costs. Example: In urban labour chowks, employers can select workers at the lowest possible wage due to the high competition among workers, which benefits the employer financially.
Thekedars Themselves Profit from Commissions: Thekedars earn commissions or fees from both workers and employers for their services. This financial gain is a direct benefit to them. Example: In the construction industry, thekedars often receive a percentage of the workers’ wages as a commission for facilitating the hiring process.

How do digital platforms replicate the role of thekedars in modern gig work?

Acting as Middlemen Without Responsibility: Just like thekedars, digital platforms connect workers to employers but do not recognize them as formal employees, avoiding obligations like job security or benefits. Example: Ride-hailing apps like Uber and Ola classify drivers as “partners” rather than employees, denying them benefits like PF or health insurance.
Downward Wage Bidding: Workers must accept the lowest possible payment, as platforms set rates based on demand and supply, just like the daily wage auctions in mazdoor mandis. Example: Food delivery workers on Swiggy and Zomato have seen their per-delivery payments decrease over time as competition increases.
Algorithm-Controlled Work Allocation: Platforms use algorithms to decide which worker gets a task, replacing the manual selection process of thekedars. Workers have no bargaining power over wages or work hours. Example: Freelancers on Upwork or Fiverr depend on algorithms that prioritize clients, making workers compete for lower pay.
Lack of Collective Bargaining: Gig workers are isolated, just like daily wagers in urban labour markets, making unionization and collective bargaining difficult. Example: Amazon Flex workers have no union representation and must accept whatever delivery rates the company offers.
Exploitative Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to get work, forcing them to accept low wages and poor conditions, similar to how thekedars exploit labour desperation. Example: “Insta Maids” service offers house help for ₹49 per hour, making workers compete for ratings instead of fair wages.

What are the challenges for gig workers in India?

Lack of Job Security and Social Benefits: Gig workers are classified as “independent contractors,” denying them benefits like health insurance, provident fund, and paid leave. Example: Delivery partners for Swiggy and Zomato receive no compensation if injured while working.
Low and Unstable Earnings: Payment structures are unpredictable, with fluctuating wages and reduced per-task payouts over time, making financial planning difficult. Example: Uber and Ola drivers often struggle as their earnings depend on peak-hour incentives, which companies frequently revise.
Exploitation Through Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to secure jobs, forcing them to accept unreasonable customer demands and work long hours. Example: Urban Company service providers risk lower earnings or job loss if they receive poor ratings from customers, regardless of actual service quality.

What steps have been taken by the Indian government?

Code on Social Security, 2020: This legislation brings gig and platform workers under the ambit of social security schemes for the first time. Example: The law mandates that gig workers be eligible for benefits like life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, and old-age protection.
E-Shram Portal (2021): A national database for unorganized workers, including gig workers, was launched to provide them with targeted benefits. Example: Registered workers receive a Universal Account Number (UAN) and accident insurance coverage under the Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana.
State-Level Welfare Initiatives: Several state governments have taken initiatives to support gig workers. Example: Rajasthan introduced the Platform-Based Gig Workers Welfare Board (2023) to ensure social security benefits.
NITI Aayog Report on Gig Economy (2022): The report highlights the need for policy interventions, including skill development, financial inclusion, and social security for gig workers. Example: Recommendations were made to extend benefits like Employee Provident Fund (EPF) and health insurance to gig workers.
PLI Scheme and Skill Development Programs: The government has introduced skill development programs for gig workers, especially in sectors like logistics and e-commerce. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) helps gig workers upskill and transition into better-paying roles.

Way forward:

Strengthening Legal Protections & Social Security: Enforce minimum wages, accident insurance, and pension benefits for gig and informal workers. Example: Amend the Code on Social Security, 2020 to ensure mandatory employer contributions.
Collective Bargaining & Fair Work Standards: Facilitate unionization and introduce fair algorithmic policies to prevent wage suppression. Example: Implement transparent rating and payment systems on digital platforms like Swiggy and Uber.

Mains PYQ:

Q Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (UPSC 2021)

Reason: The article explores “insta-commerce,” where gig workers, including women, sell via social media. While the PYQ focuses on empowerment, the article highlights challenges like job insecurity, unfair wages, and the lack of grievance redressal. This perspective offers a nuanced view of the gig economy’s impact, including its dual role in both enabling and potentially disempowering women.

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Kerala’s drug menace is widespread and escalating

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Drug trafficking;

Why in the News?

Drug abuse in Kerala has increased over the past three years. In March, the Kerala High Court raised concerns about drug mafias, and the Governor met university officials to address student drug problems.

What are the key factors contributing to the surge in drug abuse cases in Kerala over the past three years?

Increased Drug Trafficking via Coastal Routes: Kerala’s long coastline makes it a transit hub for international drug cartels. Example: In 2023, a Sri Lankan boat carrying 200 kg of heroin was intercepted off the Kerala coast.
Rise of Synthetic & Party Drugs Among Youth: Increased use of MDMA, LSD, and methamphetamine, particularly in urban areas and college campuses. Example: In 2022, over 1,000 students were caught in possession of synthetic drugs in Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram.
Easy Availability Through Darknet & Courier Services: Online platforms and encrypted messaging apps have facilitated drug trade. Example: In 2024, Kerala police busted a drug network using dark web transactions and fake delivery addresses.
Widespread Consumption Beyond Urban Centers: Unlike other states, drug abuse is reported in both rural and urban districts. Example: Every district in Kerala recorded at least 500 NDPS cases in 2022, indicating a statewide crisis.
Limited Focus on Major Suppliers & Traffickers: 94% of NDPS cases in Kerala are for possession, with only 6% related to trafficking. Example: While thousands of consumers are arrested, major drug syndicates continue operations largely unchecked.

What is the situation of drug abuse at all India levels?

Steady Rise in NDPS Cases Across India: Cases under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act have been increasing, though some states show a decline in recent years. Example: India recorded over 1.5 lakh NDPS cases in 2023, with a significant rise in Punjab, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
Punjab & Northeast Among the Worst-Affected Regions: Punjab has long struggled with heroin addiction, while the Northeast is affected due to drug trafficking from Myanmar’s Golden Triangle. Example: In 2024, Punjab recorded 30 cases per lakh people, the second-highest after Kerala.
Shift from Natural to Synthetic & Pharmaceutical Drugs: Synthetic drugs (MDMA, LSD, Meth), opioids, and prescription medicines (Tramadol, Codeine-based syrups) are increasingly being abused. Example: In Mumbai, over 60% of drug-related arrests in 2023 involved synthetic drugs rather than traditional narcotics like cannabis.
Growing Use of Dark Web & Digital Payments for Drug Trade: Cryptocurrency transactions, darknet markets, and courier services are being used for drug sales. Example: In 2023, the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) dismantled an online drug syndicate operating across multiple Indian states.
State-Wise Variation in Drug Trafficking & Consumption Patterns: While Punjab & Northeast face opioid crises, Mumbai & Bengaluru see more party drug use, and Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh have rising cannabis-related arrests. Example: In 2022, Bengaluru accounted for 63% of Karnataka’s NDPS cases, highlighting an urban concentration of drug abuse.

What are the steps taken by the Government?

Strengthening Law Enforcement & Anti-Drug Operations: The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) and state police have intensified crackdowns on drug trafficking networks. Example: In 2023, the NCB seized over 2000 kg of drugs nationwide, including heroin and synthetic substances, in coordinated raids.
Expansion of Rehabilitation & De-addiction Programs: The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment runs the Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (NMBA) to promote awareness and rehabilitation. Example: Over 370 de-addiction centres were established under NMBA in states like Punjab, Maharashtra, and Kerala.
Use of Technology & AI for Drug Surveillance: Government agencies monitor dark web transactions, cryptocurrency payments, and social media platforms to track drug deals. Example: In 2023, the NCB cracked a crypto-drug syndicate that was smuggling MDMA and LSD through online orders.
Public Awareness & Educational Campaigns: Schools, colleges, and workplaces are conducting anti-drug sensitization programs to reduce youth drug abuse. Example: Kerala’s ‘Love-a-Thon’ campaign in universities aims to educate students on the dangers of substance abuse.
International Cooperation & Border Security Measures: India has increased cooperation with Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Iran to curb cross-border drug trafficking. Example: In 2023, the Indian Navy intercepted a Pakistan-based heroin shipment worth ₹1,200 crore in the Arabian Sea.

Way forward:

Targeted Crackdown on Drug Supply Chains: Strengthen intelligence-led operations against major traffickers, enhance coastal & border security, and increase inter-agency coordination to dismantle drug syndicates.
Comprehensive Prevention & Rehabilitation Strategy: Expand school-based drug education, integrate mental health support in de-addiction programs, and enhance community-based rehabilitation to address both urban and rural drug abuse.

Mains PYQ:

Q Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco-terrorism. (UPSC 2024)

Reason: This question is potentially linked with narco-terrorism. The measures suggested to counter narco-terrorism would also be relevant to addressing the drug problem in Kerala, especially if it involves organized crime and cross-border elements.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Afghanistan

New Delhi’s perilous recalibration with the Taliban

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: India-Afghanistan Relations;

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister of India may allow the Taliban regime to appoint a new envoy for its embassy in New Delhi.

What are the key reasons behind India’s increasing engagement with the Taliban despite international concerns?

Strategic Influence in Afghanistan: India aims to maintain a presence in Afghanistan to safeguard its long-term geopolitical interests.Example: India reopened its embassy in Kabul in June 2022, ensuring diplomatic engagement.
Countering Pakistan’s Diminishing Influence: As Taliban-Pakistan relations sour, India sees an opportunity to reduce Islamabad’s sway over Kabul. Example: The Taliban’s refusal to act against Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has strained ties with Pakistan, creating space for India.
Competing with China’s Expanding Role: China has accepted a Taliban envoy and is integrating Afghanistan into the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: China became the first country to accept a Taliban-appointed ambassador in 2023, prompting India to reconsider its approach.
Ensuring Regional Security and Counterterrorism: A stable Afghanistan is crucial to preventing it from becoming a hub for anti-India terror groups. Example: India seeks Taliban cooperation in curbing ISIS-K and groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) that threaten Indian interests.
Economic and Humanitarian Interests: Engaging with the Taliban allows India to continue developmental projects and provide humanitarian aid. Example: India has sent multiple consignments of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan under humanitarian assistance programs.

Why is the recognition of a Taliban envoy in India considered a significant shift in diplomatic policy?

De Facto Recognition of the Taliban Regime: Accepting a Taliban-appointed envoy would signal India’s indirect recognition of the regime, despite its lack of international legitimacy. Example: Most countries, including the U.S. and EU members, have refused to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations.
Departure from India’s Traditional Stand on Terrorism: India has consistently opposed regimes that support terrorism. Engaging with the Taliban contradicts its long-standing stance. Example: India had previously refused to engage with the Taliban, citing its ties to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).
Contradiction with India’s Human Rights Advocacy: The Taliban’s treatment of women and minorities has been widely condemned, and recognizing its envoy could weaken India’s credibility as a human rights advocate. Example: The UN has termed the Taliban’s policies as “gender apartheid,” which contradicts India’s global image as a democratic and inclusive nation.
Impact on Relations with Western Allies: Closer engagement with the Taliban may strain India’s relations with countries that have imposed sanctions on the Taliban. Example: The U.S. and European nations continue to restrict diplomatic ties and financial transactions with Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.
Risk of Setting a Precedent for Other Unrecognized Regimes: Accepting a Taliban envoy might encourage other unrecognized regimes to seek similar diplomatic treatment, complicating India’s foreign policy. Example: It could open debates on whether India should engage similarly with other disputed governments, such as Myanmar’s military junta.

What are the major risks for India in engaging with the Taliban?

Security Threats and Terrorism: The Taliban’s ties with terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) pose a direct threat to India’s national security. Example: The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was linked to JeM, which has operated from Taliban-controlled areas in the past.
Growing Influence of the Islamic State (IS): The Islamic State-Khorasan Province (IS-K) has been expanding in Afghanistan, carrying out attacks even against the Taliban and its allies. Example: IS-K’s attack on the Moscow Crocus City Hall in 2024 and the bombing of a Kabul hotel housing Chinese nationals show Afghanistan’s instability.
Potential Diplomatic Backlash: Engaging with the Taliban could harm India’s relations with key allies like the U.S. and the EU, which refuse to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations. Example: The U.S. and European nations maintain economic sanctions on Afghanistan, and aligning too closely with the Taliban could attract criticism.
Destabilization of India’s Western Borders: The Taliban’s alleged support for Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has worsened Pakistan’s security situation, and any spillover could affect India. Example: TTP claimed 147 attacks in Pakistan in February 2024 alone, and instability in the region could have consequences for India’s border security.
Economic and Infrastructure Investment Risks: Any investments India makes in Afghanistan may not be secure due to the Taliban’s unstable governance and lack of financial transparency. Example: India’s $3 billion investments in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and the Afghan Parliament, remain uncertain under Taliban rule.

Way forward:

Strategic, Conditional Engagement: India should engage with the Taliban on a case-by-case basis, ensuring its security interests are safeguarded while avoiding full diplomatic recognition. Example: Continuing humanitarian aid and infrastructure projects without legitimizing Taliban rule.
Regional and Multilateral Cooperation: India should collaborate with regional partners like Iran, Russia, and Central Asian states to ensure stability in Afghanistan while maintaining ties with Western allies. Example: Strengthening mechanisms like the Moscow Format Talks and UN-led initiatives to balance engagement and counter-terrorism efforts.

Mains PYQ:

Q Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics.(UPSC IAS/2024)

Reason: India’s engagement with CARs is influenced by the situation in Afghanistan and the wider regional security scenario involving the Taliban.

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Electoral Reforms In India

Why are electoral reforms necessary?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Electoral reform;

Why in the News?

Recently, the Election Commission (EC) has invited political parties for discussions on enhancing the electoral process.

What are the key legal provisions governing the electoral process in India?

Article 324 of the Constitution – Grants the Election Commission (EC) the power of superintendence, direction, and control over elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President.
Representation of the People Act, 1950 – Governs the preparation of electoral rolls and the allocation of seats in Parliament and State Legislatures.
Representation of the People Act, 1951 – Regulates the actual conduct of elections, including provisions on qualifications, disqualifications, election offenses, and corrupt practices.
Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 – Provides rules for the registration of voters, corrections in electoral rolls, and the issuance of Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPIC).
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) – A set of guidelines issued by the EC to regulate political parties and candidates, ensuring free and fair elections, even though it lacks statutory backing.

How has the voting process evolved in India since the first general elections in 1952?

Ballot Box System (1952-1957) – In the first two general elections (1952, 1957), separate ballot boxes were used for each candidate, where voters dropped blank ballot papers into the box of their chosen candidate.
Printed Ballot Papers (1962 Onwards) – From the third general election (1962), a single ballot paper was introduced with the names and symbols of all candidates, simplifying the voting process. Example: Instead of multiple boxes, voters marked their choice on a single sheet and dropped it in a common ballot box.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) (2004 Onwards) – Since the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, EVMs replaced paper ballots in all constituencies, improving efficiency and reducing errors.
Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) (2019 Onwards) – From the 2019 general elections, EVMs were backed by 100% VVPAT slips, allowing voters to verify their vote on a printed slip for a few seconds before it was stored in a sealed box. Example: A voter pressing a button on the EVM saw a printed slip confirming their vote for Candidate X before it was automatically stored.
Remote Voting and Digital Advancements (Proposed) – The Election Commission is exploring remote voting options for migrant workers and overseas Indians, along with blockchain-based voting mechanisms. Example: The EC has proposed a multi-constituency remote voting machine (RVM) to allow migrant workers to vote from different locations.

Why are electoral reforms necessary?

Addressing Electoral Roll Discrepancies: The ECI aims to improve the accuracy and transparency of electoral rolls, especially amid allegations of tampering in recent elections. For example, opposition parties have raised concerns over duplicate Electoral Photo Identity Card (EPIC) numbers, demanding discussions in Parliament regarding discrepancies in voters’ lists.
Enhancing Gender Representation: The ECI seeks feedback on measures to encourage greater representation of women in political parties and candidate selection processes. This aligns with international practices and aims to make elections more inclusive.
Regulating Election Expenditure: Discussions will focus on expenditure ceilings for elections and ensuring timely submission of audited financial reports by political parties. These measures are intended to enhance transparency and accountability in campaign financing.
Improving Voting Accessibility: The ECI plans to explore alternative voting methods for domestic migrants, absentee voters, and persons with disabilities. This includes feedback on schemes like the Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS) to ensure inclusive participation.
Strengthening Legal Frameworks for Campaign Silence Periods: To regulate election campaigns, the ECI will discuss extending restrictions to print media and online canvassing during the 48-hour silence period before polling ends, addressing concerns about social media misuse.

What is the importance of “One Nation, One Election” in the context of electoral reforms?

Enhanced Governance and Policy Continuity – Simultaneous elections reduce the frequent imposition of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), allowing governments to focus on long-term policy implementation without periodic electoral disruptions. Example: If Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections are held together, policymaking won’t be interrupted multiple times due to MCC restrictions.
Cost and Resource Efficiency – Conducting elections at different times leads to repeated expenditure on logistics, security, and manpower. A unified election cycle reduces financial and administrative burdens. Example: The 2019 Lok Sabha elections cost around ₹60,000 crore; merging state and local elections could significantly cut costs.
Increased Voter Turnout and Engagement – Holding elections simultaneously can improve voter participation by reducing election fatigue and mobilization efforts. Example: Countries like Sweden and South Africa conduct national and regional elections together, leading to streamlined voter engagement and participation.

Way forward:

Comprehensive Electoral Reforms – Strengthen legal provisions for campaign financing, voting accessibility, and electoral roll management, ensuring transparency, inclusivity, and fair representation in elections.
Leveraging Technology for Electoral Integrity – Implement secure digital voting mechanisms like blockchain-based voting and remote voting for migrant workers while enhancing VVPAT verification to boost voter confidence.

Mains PYQ:

Q Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “one nation-one election” principle. (UPSC IAS/2024)

Reason: This question directly asks about the necessity of electoral reforms which highlights several areas needing reform, such as allegations of manipulation of electoral rolls, issues with duplicate EPIC numbers, concerns about EVM and VVPAT processes, misuse of “Star Campaigner” status, exceeding election expenditure limits, and criminalization of politics.

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Mother and Child Health – Immunization Program, BPBB, PMJSY, PMMSY, etc.

Tackling the problem of nutrition

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Poverty & Hunger

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Welfare schemes;

Why in the News?

In the upcoming financial year, the government has increased funding for two key schemes—Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0.

What are the key nutrition-related schemes that received higher allocations in Budget 2025?

Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0: Allocated ₹21,960 crore, up from ₹20,070.90 crore in the previous year, these initiatives aim to combat malnutrition and strengthen early childhood care.
Mission Vatsalya (Child Protection Services): Received ₹1,500 crore, an increase from ₹1,391 crore last year, focusing on creating a safe environment for vulnerable children through institutional and family-based care.
Mission Shakti (Women’s Empowerment): Allocated ₹3,150 crore, with components like Sambal and Samarthya receiving significant funding to support initiatives such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and the Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY).
Mid-Day Meal Scheme (PM POSHAN): While specific figures were not detailed in the available sources, the scheme continues to provide nutritious meals to school children, aiming to improve health and learning outcomes.
Food Subsidy Program: The government plans to increase the food subsidy bill by about 5% to nearly ₹2.15 trillion, primarily due to higher rice purchases and rising storage costs, ensuring food security for the underprivileged.

Why is India’s nutrition challenge not just about food insecurity but also linked to cultural and social factors?

Dietary Habits Shaped by Culture: Traditional food choices often lack diversity in essential nutrients, leading to malnutrition. According to the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5), only 11% of breastfed children (6-23 months) receive an adequate diet. Example: Many vegetarian diets in India lack protein, iron, and vitamin B12, increasing anaemia risks.
Caste and Social Norms Impact Food Access: Historical caste-based discrimination limits access to nutrient-rich foods for marginalized communities. Example: Many lower-caste communities have restricted access to milk and pulses, key protein sources.
Gender Disparities in Nutrition: Women often eat last and consume less nutritious food compared to men in the family.
- NFHS-5 reports that 57% of Indian women (15-49 years old) are anaemic, significantly higher than men.
Urbanization and Processed Food Consumption: Rising income levels and urban lifestyles have increased fast food and processed food consumption, leading to diet-related diseases. Around 23% of women and 22.2% of men in India are overweight or obese, according to NFHS-5. Example: High consumption of sugar-laden, fiber-poor packaged foods contributes to rising cases of diabetes and hypertension.
Limited Nutrition Focus Beyond Maternal and Child Health: National policies prioritize nutrition interventions for pregnant women and children but ignore other vulnerable groups.Elderly populations and working men receive little policy attention, despite being at risk of malnutrition and lifestyle diseases.
- Example: According to NFHS-5, only 27.5% of adults with diabetes were aware of their condition, 21.5% were on treatment, and just 7% had their diabetes under control.

How does the existing nutrition policy overlook certain segments of the population?

Focus on Women and Children, Ignoring Other Vulnerable Groups: Most policies, like Poshan 2.0 and Saksham Anganwadi, prioritize maternal and child nutrition but neglect other groups. Example: Elderly populations, adolescent boys, and working men rarely receive targeted nutritional support.
Lack of Attention to Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): Policies focus on undernutrition but ignore rising lifestyle-related diseases like diabetes and hypertension. Example: 14% of adults in India require diabetes medication, yet nutrition plans rarely address high sugar and processed food consumption.
Limited Inclusion of Urban Poor and Middle-Class Nutritional Needs: Urban food insecurity and poor dietary habits are often overlooked in favor of rural nutrition programs. Example: Many urban poor rely on cheap, processed foods with low nutritional value, increasing obesity and micronutrient deficiencies.
One-Size-Fits-All Approach Ignores Local Dietary Diversity: National policies provide standardized nutrition interventions that may not align with regional food habits. Example: In some tribal areas, traditional nutrient-rich foods like millets are being replaced with government-distributed wheat and rice, reducing diet diversity.
Inadequate Support for Special Groups (Elderly, Disabled, Recuperating Patients): People recovering from illnesses, trauma, or those with disabilities have special dietary needs that existing policies fail to address. Example: Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) provide minimal nutrition support for elderly individuals with osteoporosis or post-surgical patients needing high-protein diets.

What steps has taken by the Indian government?

Increased Allocation for Nutrition Schemes: Higher funding for Poshan 2.0 and Saksham Anganwadi to improve maternal and child nutrition. Example: Focus on aspirational districts and take-home rations for malnourished children.
Fortification of Staple Foods: Distribution of fortified rice, wheat, and edible oil to tackle micronutrient deficiencies. Example: Fortified rice with iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12 in Mid-Day Meal (PM-POSHAN).
Strengthening Public Distribution System (PDS): Free ration under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) to ensure food security. Example: 5 kg of free grains per person per month for priority households.
Promotion of Millets and Local Food: Encouraging millet consumption for better nutrition and climate resilience. Example: 2023 was the International Year of Millets, and millets are now included in PM-POSHAN.
Awareness and Behavioral Change Campaigns: POSHAN Abhiyan promotes healthy dietary habits, anemia prevention, and hygiene. Example: Campaigns to promote breastfeeding and combat malnutrition at the grassroots level.

Way forward:

Expand Nutrition Coverage Beyond Maternal and Child Health: Develop inclusive policies targeting adolescents, elderly populations, and working adults. Example: Introduce nutrition programs for non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes and obesity.
Promote Region-Specific and Sustainable Diets: Encourage traditional, locally available nutrient-rich foods over a one-size-fits-all approach. Example: Integrate millets and indigenous grains into government nutrition programs.

Mains PYQ:

Q “Poverty and malnutrition create a vicious cycle, adversely affecting human capital formation. What steps can be taken to break the cycle? (2024)

Reason: This question directly addresses the link between poverty and malnutrition and asks for solutions.

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Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

India, New Zealand resume trade deal talks after decade

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: India - New Zealand relations;

Why in the News?

After nearly 10 years, India and New Zealand have resumed talks on a free trade agreement (FTA) to strengthen economic relations.

What is the main objective of resuming India-New Zealand FTA negotiations?

Enhancing Market Access & Trade Growth: The FTA aims to expand trade opportunities by reducing tariffs and trade barriers. Example: Bilateral trade surpassed USD 1 billion (April-January 2025), highlighting the potential for further growth.
Strengthening Supply Chain Integration: The agreement seeks to improve logistics and supply chain efficiency between the two countries. Example: New Zealand’s dairy and agricultural products could find structured entry into India, while India’s IT and pharmaceutical sectors could benefit from easier access to the New Zealand market.
Boosting Investment & Business Opportunities: The FTA will help attract investments and foster job creation in sectors like IT, services, and agriculture. Example: India seeks better mobility for skilled professionals, benefiting industries like software services and engineering.

Why did the India-New Zealand trade talks stall in 2015?

Disagreements Over Dairy Market Access: New Zealand demanded greater access to India’s dairy market, but India resisted to protect its millions of dairy farmers. Example: India’s dairy imports from New Zealand were minimal (~$0.57 million), and India remained firm against allowing raw dairy imports.
Tariff Reduction Challenges: New Zealand had a low average tariff of 2.3%, while India had a higher average tariff of 17.8%, making tariff reductions challenging. Example: India was reluctant to lower tariffs on New Zealand’s dairy, meat, and wine exports, fearing a negative impact on domestic industries.
Limited Gains for India in Goods Trade: Since New Zealand already had low tariffs and duty-free access for many goods, India saw fewer advantages in an FTA. Example: Indian exports such as textiles, apparel, and pharmaceuticals already had significant access to the New Zealand market.
Concerns Over Skilled Labor Mobility: India wanted easier movement of skilled professionals in IT and services, but New Zealand was hesitant. Example: India sought better visa provisions for IT and engineering professionals, which faced resistance.
External Trade Pressures: India faced pressure from other countries like the U.S. to open its dairy and agricultural sectors, complicating negotiations. Example: Allowing New Zealand’s dairy products could have set a precedent for other trade partners demanding similar concessions.

How does the tariff disparity between India and New Zealand pose a challenge to the negotiations?

Significant Difference in Average Tariff Rates: New Zealand’s average import tariff is only 2.3%, with over half of its tariff lines duty-free, while India’s average tariff stands at 17.8%. Example: Indian goods already have substantial access to the New Zealand market, making a traditional FTA less beneficial for India.
Limited Market Access Gains for India: Since New Zealand already imposes low or no tariffs on many products, India’s exporters may not gain significant new access. Example: Sectors like textiles, pharmaceuticals, and auto components already enter New Zealand with minimal restrictions, reducing the FTA’s potential benefits for India.
Pressure on India to Lower Tariffs on Sensitive Sectors: New Zealand is pushing for tariff reductions on dairy, meat, and wine exports, but India is reluctant to protect domestic farmers and industries. Example: India’s dairy sector supports millions of small farmers, making it difficult to allow imports that could undercut local production.
Imbalance in Reciprocal Concessions: If India significantly lowers its tariffs, New Zealand would gain more than India, creating an imbalance in trade benefits. Example: India would have to make greater tariff cuts, while New Zealand’s market access would remain largely unchanged.
Potential Precedent for Other Trade Partners: If India agrees to major tariff cuts for New Zealand, other countries in future FTAs may demand similar concessions, complicating trade policy. Example: Countries like Australia, the EU, and the U.S. could push India to open up its agriculture and dairy sectors, which India has traditionally protected.

Way forward:

Balanced Trade Concessions & Sectoral Safeguards: India and New Zealand should explore sector-specific agreements rather than blanket tariff reductions. Example: India can allow limited access to value-added dairy products while ensuring safeguards for domestic farmers. Similarly, New Zealand can offer better terms for India’s IT and services sector.
Enhanced Collaboration in Non-Tariff Areas: Both nations should focus on investment facilitation, technology exchange, and regulatory cooperation to maximize mutual benefits beyond tariff cuts. Example: Joint ventures in agritech, renewable energy, and pharmaceuticals can create new trade opportunities without tariff-related conflicts.

Mains PYQ:

Reason: It highlights the importance of analyzing India’s evolving economic relations with other regions, which is similar to the context of resuming talks with New Zealand.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

[15th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Modern day summitry, its perils and its prospects

Explained op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance:

Q) The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (2023)

Mentor’s Comment: This question focused on India’s strategic positioning and alliances with the West, relates to the broader context of high-level summit diplomacy and strategic interactions between nations

A strong leader is often seen as someone who holds significant power, shaping both government policies and their political party. This leadership style is debated, but many agree it can be useful in politics and diplomacy. Leaders like Donald Trump and Narendra Modi are considered strong leaders. Both actively engage in summit diplomacy, which has both advantages and risks. While decisive leadership can bring benefits, relying too much on personal judgment can lead to problems. Despite these challenges, summit diplomacy has become a key tool for powerful leaders in handling major global issues like war and peace.

Today’s editorial highlights the importance of summit diplomacy and the key traits of a strong leader. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

Despite unplanned meetings like Trump’s, summit diplomacy will remain important in global relations.

What are the key characteristics of a “strong leader” in the context of modern politics and diplomacy?

Centralization of Power: A strong leader often consolidates power, making key policy and political decisions with minimal consultation. Example: Vladimir Putin’s centralized control over Russian politics and military decisions.
Assertive Foreign Policy and Summit Diplomacy: They engage directly in high-profile diplomatic negotiations, often prioritizing personal rapport over traditional diplomatic channels. Example: Donald Trump’s direct summits with Kim Jong-un to negotiate North Korea’s nuclear program.
Image Building and Popular Appeal: They craft a strong public persona through rhetoric, social media, and large-scale events to project authority and national pride. Example: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s use of mass rallies and media control to consolidate power in Turkey.
Decisive but Controversial Decision-Making: They make bold decisions, sometimes bypassing institutional checks, which can lead to both positive reforms and authoritarian tendencies. Example: Xi Jinping’s removal of term limits in China, allowing him to rule indefinitely.

Why is summit diplomacy considered both beneficial and problematic in resolving international conflicts?

Benefits of summit diplomacy:

Direct and Efficient Decision-Making: Summits allow leaders to bypass bureaucratic delays and make high-stakes decisions quickly. Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) saw U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev negotiate directly, preventing nuclear war.
Confidence-Building and Diplomatic Trust: Face-to-face interactions help build mutual trust and diplomatic relationships between nations. Example: The Reagan-Gorbachev Summits (1985-1988) played a key role in reducing Cold War tensions and leading to nuclear arms reduction.
Breakthroughs in Long-Standing Disputes: Summit diplomacy has resolved historical disputes that traditional diplomacy failed to address. Example: The Camp David Accords (1978) led to peace between Egypt and Israel after decades of hostility.
Symbolic and Strategic Value: High-profile summits reinforce a country’s global leadership and strategic partnerships. Example: The Singapore Summit (2018) between Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un, which temporarily reduced tensions on the Korean Peninsula.
Crisis Management and De-escalation: Summits provide a platform for crisis diplomacy, helping to prevent conflicts from escalating into full-scale wars. Example: The Dayton Accords (1995) ended the Bosnian War by bringing together leaders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia for direct negotiations.

Problems of summit diplomacy:

Risk of Superficial Agreements: Leaders often prioritize political optics over substantive solutions, leading to vague or unenforceable agreements. Example: The Minsk Agreements (2014-2015) aimed at resolving the Ukraine conflict but lacked effective implementation mechanisms.
Personal Egos and Power Imbalances: Strong-willed leaders may focus more on personal victories rather than genuine conflict resolution. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy Summit (2025), where public confrontations and political grandstanding overshadowed meaningful negotiations on Ukraine.

How did the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges highlight the complexities and risks of pseudo-summit diplomacy?

Blurred Lines Between Diplomacy and Personal Interests: Instead of focusing purely on state interests, pseudo-summit diplomacy can be influenced by personal or political gains. Example: The Trump-Zelenskyy phone call (2019) became controversial when Trump allegedly pressured Zelenskyy to investigate Joe Biden’s son, intertwining diplomacy with U.S. domestic politics.
Lack of Institutional Safeguards: Informal or direct leader-to-leader diplomacy can bypass traditional diplomatic channels, reducing oversight and accountability. Example: The absence of career diplomats in the Trump-Zelenskyy exchanges led to concerns over improper diplomatic conduct and potential abuse of power.
Vulnerability to Misinformation and Manipulation: Without structured diplomatic engagement, such interactions can be misused for propaganda or misinterpreted in ways that escalate tensions. Example: The impeachment inquiry against Trump was fueled by the whistleblower complaint alleging that the U.S. was leveraging military aid for political favors.

What should India learn from this? (Way forward)

Institutionalize Diplomatic Processes: Informal leader-to-leader diplomacy should not replace structured diplomatic engagement involving foreign service professionals.
- India should prioritize institutional mechanisms (e.g., MEA-led negotiations) to ensure consistency and avoid undue political influence in international relations.
Avoid Mixing Domestic Politics with Foreign Policy: Diplomatic engagements must remain separate from electoral or partisan interests to maintain credibility.
- India must ensure that foreign policy decisions are not dictated by short-term political gains and avoid using international diplomacy for domestic political narratives.
Strengthen Transparency and Accountability: Diplomatic engagements should be conducted with oversight to prevent misuse or misinterpretation.
- India should continue using parliamentary committees and professional diplomats to maintain transparency and avoid secretive deals that could lead to unintended consequences.

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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

A voluntary mandate: On the APAAR student ID

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Data protection; impact of APAAR;

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Education introduced the Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (APAAR) ID to digitally store each student’s academic records, providing a single, reliable source of their educational history throughout their life in India.

Should the APAAR ID be imposed without a legal framework in place?

Violation of Right to Privacy: Without a legal framework, imposing APAAR violates the right to privacy upheld by the Supreme Court in the Puttaswamy judgment (2017). Example: The Court ruled that Aadhaar cannot be mandatory for basic services like school admissions. APAAR, linked to Aadhaar, may similarly infringe on privacy rights.
Lack of Informed Consent: Mandatory implementation without clear legal guidelines undermines voluntary participation and informed consent. Example: Parents in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka face pressure to enroll their children despite official claims that APAAR is voluntary.
Data Security Risks: Collecting sensitive student data without legal safeguards increases vulnerability to data breaches and misuse. Example: The Aadhaar leak incidents exposed millions of personal records, highlighting risks in handling large-scale digital databases without strict protection laws.
Discrimination and Exclusion: Errors in digital records (e.g., name mismatches) can exclude students from educational benefits if no legal recourse is available. Example: In DigiLocker, discrepancies in Aadhaar details have led to failed registrations and denial of services. Similar risks exist with APAAR.
Need for Legislative Oversight: A legal framework ensures transparency, accountability, and public trust in the system’s operation. Example: Countries like Germany regulate educational data under the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) to protect citizens’ privacy. India lacks similar comprehensive safeguards for APAAR.

What is the purpose of the APAAR ID introduced by the Ministry of Education?

Digitisation of Academic Records: APAAR (Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry) aims to create a digital repository for every student’s academic transcripts, ensuring a lifetime record of their educational journey.
- It seeks to provide a unified and verified database for academic credentials, reducing discrepancies and ensuring authenticity across institutions.
Improved Accessibility and Portability: Enables students to access, share, and transfer their academic records seamlessly across educational institutions and employment platforms.
Integration with Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): APAAR is part of the broader Digital Public Infrastructure strategy, aligning with initiatives like UDISE+ and the Student Database Management System to enhance educational governance.
Facilitating Future Opportunities: It aims to streamline processes like scholarship applications, higher education admissions, and employment verification, making these services more efficient and transparent.

How are schools and state education authorities in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka enforcing APAAR enrolment?

Imposing 100% Enrolment Targets: Schools have been directed to achieve “saturation”, meaning complete APAAR enrolment for all students, putting pressure on administrators and parents. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, education authorities have set strict deadlines for schools to register every student under the APAAR system.
Threatening Consequences for Non-Enrolment: Schools are warning parents of potential penalties or loss of educational services if they refuse to enroll their children. Example: In Karnataka, some schools have informed parents that students may face issues in accessing government benefits and future educational opportunities without APAAR registration.
Targeting Minority Institutions and Administrators: Religious minority schools and district education officials face increased scrutiny for discrepancies between APAAR and existing student records. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, authorities have questioned minority institutions over mismatched enrollment data, raising concerns about discrimination and administrative overreach.

Way forward:

Enact a Clear Legal Framework: Introduce legislation to regulate APAAR, ensuring data protection, informed consent, and compliance with the right to privacy as upheld by the Supreme Court.
Ensure Voluntary Participation and Transparency: Maintain APAAR enrolment as optional, provide clear communication to parents and institutions, and establish grievance redressal mechanisms to address errors and concerns.

Mains PYQ:

Q Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on the Right to Privacy. (UPSC IAS/2017)

Reason- UPSC’s focus on privacy concerns related to government actions.

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Languages and Eighth Schedule

A school closure that must be called out

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Social Empowerment

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related to Adivasi communities;

Why in the News?

The shutdown of the only Gondi-medium school in Maharashtra’s Gadchiroli district, which was started in 2019 by the Mohgaon gram panchayat, raises concerns about tribal students learning in their own language.

What constitutional provisions support the preservation of Adivasi languages and cultures in India?

Article 29: Protects the rights of minorities to conserve their distinct languages, scripts, and cultures.
Article 350A: Directs the state to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary education level for minority children.
Fifth Schedule: Provides special protections and governance provisions for Scheduled Areas, where many Adivasi communities reside.
Sixth Schedule: Grants autonomy to certain tribal areas in the northeastern states, allowing self-governance and cultural preservation.
Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA): Recognizes the role of gram sabhas in self-governance, including decisions related to education in tribal areas.

How do the forces of absorption in secular and religious realms impact Adivasi communities?

Marginalization of Adivasi Languages in Education: Adivasi students are forced to learn in dominant languages, leading to the decline of their mother tongues and weakening of cultural identity. Example: The closure of the Gondi-medium school in Maharashtra due to non-recognition under the Right to Education Act.
Loss of Land and Displacement Due to Development Projects: Adivasi communities are displaced from their ancestral lands due to industrial and infrastructural projects, leading to economic instability and cultural loss. Example: Large-scale mining and dam projects in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh have forced many Adivasis to migrate to urban slums.
Religious Assimilation and Erosion of Indigenous Beliefs: Traditional tribal religious practices are undermined or replaced by dominant religions, leading to cultural homogenization. Example: The decline of Sarna worship among Adivasis due to conversions to Hinduism and Christianity.
Market-Driven Cultural Appropriation: Tribal art, music, and traditions are exploited for commercial purposes without benefiting the Adivasi creators. Example: Warli and Gond paintings being sold globally, while many Adivasi artists remain in poverty.
Denial of Political and Constitutional Recognition: The lack of official recognition for Adivasi languages and cultures weakens their identity and limits access to resources and opportunities. Example: Gondi, spoken by over 2.9 million people, is not included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, whereas Sanskrit, spoken by fewer than 25,000, is recognized.

What are the steps taken by the government?

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Emphasizes mother-tongue-based education at the primary level, promoting indigenous languages. Example: Bilingual textbooks in tribal languages have been introduced in states like Odisha and Jharkhand.
Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): Aims to provide quality education to tribal students while incorporating their cultural heritage. Example: Over 700 EMRS schools are planned across India, with some offering instruction in tribal languages.
Documentation and Digital Preservation Initiatives: Projects to document and preserve endangered tribal languages and cultures. Example: The Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL) under the CIIL (Central Institute of Indian Languages) focuses on documenting languages like Gondi.

What are the factors that highlight the contrast between the recognition of Sanskrit and Gondi in the Eighth Schedule?

Oral vs. Textual Tradition: Sanskrit has a vast corpus of classical texts and scriptures, whereas Gondi follows an oral tradition, making it vulnerable to erosion without formal preservation efforts. Example: Ancient Sanskrit texts like the Vedas are archived and studied, but Gondi folklore and oral histories are at risk of being lost due to a lack of institutional documentation.
Number of Speakers: Gondi is spoken by over 2.9 million people across six states, while Sanskrit has fewer than 25,000 speakers. Example: Despite its widespread use among Adivasi communities, Gondi remains unrecognized, whereas Sanskrit, with a much smaller speaker base, is included in the Eighth Schedule.
State Support and Promotion: Sanskrit receives government funding, university courses, and institutional backing, whereas Gondi lacks state-supported educational and literary initiatives. Example: Sanskrit is taught in schools and has dedicated institutions like the Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, while Gondi-medium schools struggle for recognition, such as the case in Maharashtra.
Socio-Political Influence: Sanskrit is associated with elite Brahminical traditions and enjoys support from powerful socio-political groups, whereas Gondi is linked to marginalized Adivasi communities with limited political representation. Example: Political leaders and policymakers advocate for Sanskrit’s preservation, but there is little lobbying for Gondi’s inclusion in the Eighth Schedule.
Economic and Employment Relevance: Sanskrit is promoted as a classical and sacred language, but it has minimal practical usage in employment, whereas Gondi is actively spoken by tribal communities in daily life. Example: Sanskrit is used in religious and academic contexts, while Gondi is the primary language for communication among Adivasis, yet lacks state recognition.

Way forward:

Institutional Recognition and Policy Support: Need to include Gondi and other major Adivasi languages in the Eighth Schedule to ensure constitutional recognition, funding for education, and cultural preservation.
Community-Led Preservation and Promotion: The Government should strengthen grassroots efforts by empowering Adivasi organizations, establishing indigenous language schools, and promoting digital documentation of oral traditions.

Mains PYQ:

Q Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a single category? (UPSC IAS/2022)

Reason- This question is relevant because the closure of the Gondi-medium school highlights the specific educational needs of a particular tribal community (Gondi speakers).

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Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

The gender budget — bigger allocations, little impact

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Gender Budget; Vulnerable class issues;

Why in the News?

The Union Budget 2025-26 has increased funding for women-centric schemes to ₹4.49 lakh crore, a 37.25% rise from ₹3.27 lakh crore in the previous year. This increase remains significant even after accounting for an estimated inflation rate of 3.61%.

What are the major reasons for the underutilisation of funds allocated under the Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP) and Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP)?

Bureaucratic Delays and Complex Procedures: In many states, lengthy approval processes and multi-tiered administrative hurdles delay fund disbursement, preventing timely implementation of welfare schemes. The “Post-Matric Scholarship for SC/ST Students” often faces delays due to slow bureaucratic processing.
Lack of Community Involvement in Planning: The absence of direct consultation with SC/ST communities results in schemes that do not align with their specific needs.
- In tribal areas, the lack of local representation has led to the failure of livelihood programs tailored for forest-based communities.
Inadequate Awareness and Outreach: Many eligible beneficiaries are unaware of available programs due to poor dissemination of information. Despite a substantial allocation to the “Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana,” low awareness among SC/ST households has limited its reach.
Underutilisation due to Misallocation: Funds intended for targeted development are often diverted to general welfare projects, reducing the impact on SC/ST communities. In some states, funds under the TSP have been used for infrastructure projects that do not directly benefit tribal populations.
Digital and Procedural Barriers: The shift to digital application processes without adequate digital literacy programs has excluded many SC/ST beneficiaries. In Rajasthan, digitization of welfare schemes like “PVTG Development Programmes” has created barriers for those lacking internet access or digital skills.

Why is the lack of gender-disaggregated data within SCSP and TSP a major challenge in assessing the impact on SC/ST women?

Inability to Measure Gender-Specific Outcomes: Without data distinguishing male and female beneficiaries, it’s challenging to evaluate the effectiveness of initiatives aimed at SC/ST women.
- For instance, literacy rates among SC women stand at 56.5%, and among ST women at 49.4%, compared to the national female literacy rate of 64.63%.
Failure to Address Intersectional Disparities: SC/ST women experience layered discrimination based on caste, gender, and class. Without data distinguishing their experiences, policies fail to address these overlapping vulnerabilities.
- For example, in tribal areas, women’s access to maternal healthcare remains poor because gender-specific needs are not reflected in TSP allocations.
Ineffective Policy Design and Implementation: The absence of gender-specific data prevents the government from designing targeted interventions and monitoring their effectiveness.
- In the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Gramin), there is no separate data on SC/ST women beneficiaries, making it difficult to assess if they are receiving adequate housing support.

How has digitalisation created new barriers for women, particularly those from marginalised communities?

Limited Digital Literacy and Access: Many women from SC/ST and other marginalised groups lack basic digital skills, making it difficult to access welfare schemes and online services. For instance, beneficiaries of the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana often struggle to navigate digital banking platforms, leading to dependency on intermediaries.
Exclusion Due to Lack of Digital Infrastructure: Poor digital infrastructure in rural and tribal areas limits women’s ability to participate in digital governance processes. For example, the Aadhaar-linked Public Distribution System (PDS) often fails to deliver benefits to women in remote regions due to biometric authentication issues.
Increased Dependence on Intermediaries: Digital processes intended to reduce corruption have increased reliance on middlemen for those who cannot navigate online systems. For instance, women applying for the PM Ujjwala Yojana face difficulties completing online applications, forcing them to seek help and sometimes pay additional fees.

Case study: What lessons can be drawn from Kerala’s Kudumbashree mission to improve the effectiveness of gender budgets?

Community-Led Participatory Approach: Involving women from the grassroots level in planning, implementation, and monitoring ensures that schemes address their real needs. For instance, Kudumbashree’s neighbourhood groups empower women to influence local budget decisions, ensuring better allocation and utilisation of resources.
Transparent Monitoring and Accountability: Regular audits and community-based tracking improve fund utilisation and prevent leakages. For example, Kudumbashree’s micro-level monitoring system tracks welfare schemes, ensuring funds reach the intended beneficiaries and improving service delivery.

Way forward:

Strengthen Data Systems and Targeted Monitoring: Implement gender-disaggregated and caste-specific data collection within SCSP and TSP to track the impact on SC/ST women and address intersectional vulnerabilities effectively.
Enhance Digital and Community Accessibility: Invest in digital literacy programs and community-based facilitation to ensure equitable access to welfare schemes, especially for women in rural and marginalised communities.

Mains PYQ:

Q Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation? (UPSC IAS/2024)

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Languages and Eighth Schedule

India’s choice between progress and parochialism

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related to linguistic policies ;

Why in the News?

India faces a challenge in advancing global technology and promoting cultural nationalism.

What are the key contradictions between India’s linguistic policies and its ambitions for global technological leadership?

Promotion of Global Tech Leadership vs. Linguistic Nationalism: While the government advocates for technological innovation and global collaboration (e.g., PM Modi’s co-chairing of the AI Action Summit in Paris), cultural nationalist groups like the RSS push to reject English and promote indigenous languages. Example: Maharashtra’s mandate to prioritize Marathi in government offices conflicts with the need for English proficiency in global tech and business environments.
Dual Education System: Private schools emphasize English, preparing students for global opportunities, while most government schools focus on regional languages, limiting access to global knowledge. Example: Elite private-school graduates secure jobs in multinational tech firms, while students from regional-language schools face barriers in competitive industries like AI and software development.
Language as Identity vs. Economic Pragmatism: While India debates language as a cultural marker, other countries treat English as a tool for economic advancement. Example: China and South Korea prioritize English proficiency to foster technological growth, whereas India’s linguistic nationalism hampers similar progress.
Global Collaboration vs. Linguistic Isolation: Success in emerging fields like AI requires collaboration in English-led international forums, but domestic policies discourage its widespread adoption. Example: Israel mandates English alongside STEM education, enabling global research participation, while India’s restrictive policies hinder such integration.
Access to AI and Digital Technologies: AI technologies are predominantly developed and documented in English, yet linguistic policies limit access for a majority of Indians. Example: Indian startups working on AI and machine learning struggle to scale globally due to the language barrier affecting workforce readiness.

Why is English proficiency considered crucial for India’s future workforce in the AI-driven economy?

Access to Global Knowledge and Innovation: Most research papers, technical documentation, and AI frameworks are published in English. Without proficiency, Indian professionals face barriers to understanding and applying the latest advancements. Example: Cutting-edge AI models like GPT and TensorFlow are primarily documented in English, making it essential for developers to engage with and innovate using these tools.
Enhanced Employment Opportunities: English is the dominant language in multinational companies and global tech ecosystems. Proficiency opens doors to better-paying jobs and international collaborations. Example: Indian engineers fluent in English are preferred by global tech giants like Google, Microsoft, and Meta for roles in AI development and data science.
Participation in Global AI Governance and Policy: As AI evolves, international regulatory frameworks and ethical discussions are conducted in English. Without linguistic competence, India risks being sidelined in shaping global AI norms. Example: India’s ability to contribute to forums like the Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) depends on having experts who can engage in technical and policy dialogues in English.

Which regions in India demonstrate better educational and economic outcomes due to their multilingual approach?

Southern States (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu): These states follow a three-language policy (regional language, Hindi, and English) in schools, ensuring proficiency in English while preserving local identity. Example: Bengaluru in Karnataka is a leading global technology hub, attracting investments in AI and IT due to a highly skilled, multilingual workforce.
Western States (Maharashtra, Gujarat): Urban areas in these states emphasize English-medium education alongside regional languages, enabling access to both domestic and international job markets. Example: Mumbai’s multilingual workforce supports thriving sectors like finance, media, and global trade, making it India’s economic powerhouse.
Union Territories (Delhi, Chandigarh): The education system here integrates English, Hindi, and local languages, fostering linguistic adaptability and attracting businesses requiring bilingual professionals. Example: Delhi’s multilingual policies contribute to its prominence in sectors like legal services, information technology, and international commerce.

Way forward:

Balanced Language Policy: Implement a multilingual education framework that promotes regional languages while ensuring universal access to English from an early age to enhance global competitiveness.
Inclusive Digital Ecosystem: Invest in translating AI resources and technical content into regional languages while encouraging English proficiency to bridge the linguistic divide in emerging technologies.

Mains PYQ:

Q Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalisation? Justify your answer.” (2019)

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Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

What the recent GDP data revisions reveal

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: GDP Growth;

Why in the News?

The rise in real and nominal growth rates is expected to impact future economic growth plans and long-term strategies.

Recently, the National Statistical Office (NSO) has provided two types of data.

Revised Annual GDP/GVA Estimates: Updated figures for Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross Value Added (GVA) for the financial years 2022-23, 2023-24, and 2024-25, reflecting changes based on the latest economic data.
Quarterly and Advance Estimates: GDP and GVA data for the third quarter (Q3) of 2024-25, along with the second advance estimates predicting the overall economic performance for 2024-25.

Why have the real and nominal growth rates been revised upwards?

Improved Sectoral Performance: Significant upward revisions in key sectors like manufacturing (by 2.4 percentage points) and financial, real estate, and related services (by 1.9 percentage points) contributed to higher GDP estimates.
Higher Investment Contributions: Increased gross capital formation (GCF) in 2023-24 (10.5% growth) led to stronger economic activity, positively impacting overall GDP figures. Example: Real investment rate (Gross Fixed Capital Formation to GDP ratio) reached 33.4% in 2024-25.
Stronger Consumption Demand: A rebound in Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) contributed to the upward revision, especially in sectors like trade and hospitality. Example: PFCE contribution to GDP increased to 5.3 percentage points in Q4, reflecting stronger consumer spending.

Which sectors experienced the maximum upward revision in growth?

Manufacturing Sector: Revised upward by 2.4 percentage points, reflecting improved industrial production and better capacity utilization. Example: Manufacturing growth increased from 2.1% in Q2 to 3.5% in Q3 of 2024-25, indicating a gradual recovery.
Financial, Real Estate, and Related Services: Revised upward by 1.9 percentage points, driven by increased financial activities and a stronger real estate market. Example: The growth in these services contributed significantly to the overall 9.2% GDP growth in 2023-24, up from the previous estimate of 8.2%.

What are the key challenges in achieving the implied fourth-quarter GDP growth of 7.6% for 2024-25?

Weak Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) Growth: The required PFCE growth for achieving 7.6% GDP growth is 9.9%, which is historically high and challenging to sustain. Example: PFCE contribution fell from 4.3 percentage points in Q1 to 3.3 percentage points in Q2, leading to slower GDP growth of 5.6%.
Insufficient Government Capital Expenditure: The government needs to spend ₹2.61 lakh crore in the last two months to meet the revised target of ₹10.18 lakh crore, which is significantly higher than the recent trend. Example: Average government capital expenditure during February-March (2021-24) was ₹1.81 lakh crore, making the target difficult to achieve.
Slow Recovery in Manufacturing Sector: Despite some improvement, manufacturing growth remains sluggish at 3.5% in Q3, limiting its contribution to overall GDP. Example: Manufacturing growth in Q2 was only 2.1%, indicating continued structural weaknesses and reduced industrial output.
Decline in Investment Contribution: The contribution of investment to GDP growth fell from 2.3 percentage points in Q1 to 1.8 percentage points in Q3, reducing overall economic momentum. Example: Gross capital formation growth dropped from 10.5% in 2023-24 to 5.8% in 2024-25, reflecting lower private sector investments.
Global Economic Uncertainty: External factors like geopolitical tensions and fluctuating global demand can negatively impact exports and foreign investments. Example: Persistent global uncertainties in energy markets and supply chains may hinder India’s export-led growth in Q4.

What are the present policies of the Government in this regard?

National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP): Launched to invest approximately ₹111 lakh crore (US$1.4 trillion) in infrastructure projects from 2020 to 2025, focusing on energy, roads, railways, and urban development to stimulate economic growth.
PM Gati Shakti Plan: Introduced to enhance multimodal connectivity by integrating various transportation modes, aiming to improve logistics efficiency and boost industrial productivity.
Goods and Services Tax (GST) Rationalization: The government plans to reduce and simplify GST rates to alleviate the tax burden on businesses and consumers, fostering a more business-friendly environment.
Energy Sector Reforms: Legislation has been approved to encourage oil and gas exploration. For example, Amendments to the Oilfields (Regulation and Development) Act of 1948: In December 2024, the Rajya Sabha approved amendments aimed at streamlining licensing processes and improving investor confidence.
Establishment of a Coal Trading Exchange: India’s Coal Ministry is proposing a coal trading exchange to manage increased domestic coal production and facilitate competitive sales. This initiative aims to shift from a government-controlled sales model to a “many-to-many” platform for efficient price discovery.

Way forward:

Enhance Private Sector Participation: Implement targeted incentives and streamline regulatory processes to boost private investments in critical sectors like manufacturing and infrastructure. Example: Expanding the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme to emerging industries can drive long-term growth.
Strengthen Consumption and Export Demand: Promote domestic consumption through targeted tax relief and social welfare programs while enhancing export competitiveness by supporting value-added manufacturing and reducing trade barriers. Example: Implementing sector-specific export promotion schemes can mitigate global uncertainties.

Mains PYQ:

Q Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.”Discuss in the light of India’s experience. (2021)

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

Resolving the vexatious Fishing dispute

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: India Sri Lanka relations;

Why in the News?

Last week, Bimal Rathnayake, the Leader of the House in Sri Lanka’s Parliament and the country’s Transport and Highways Minister, urged the Indian and Tamil Nadu governments to take strong action against illegal fishing in Sri Lankan waters.

How do domestic factors in both India and Sri Lanka influence their respective foreign policies concerning the fishing dispute?

For India:

Livelihood Dependency and Economic Pressure: Thousands of fishermen in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry rely on fishing in the Palk Bay for their livelihoods. Limited fishing zones and declining fish stocks in Indian waters push them into Sri Lankan territory.
- Example: Fishermen from districts like Ramanathapuram and Nagapattinam regularly cross the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) due to insufficient catch within Indian waters.

Political and Electoral Pressures: Tamil Nadu’s regional parties, such as the DMK and AIADMK, often raise the fishing dispute to secure voter support, pressuring the central government to prioritize the issue in foreign policy.
- Example: Before elections, Tamil Nadu politicians routinely demand stronger diplomatic efforts to release Indian fishermen detained by the Sri Lankan Navy.

Legal and Regulatory Constraints: Indian regulations, like the Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act (1983), restrict the use of mechanized boats close to the shore, limiting fishing areas and driving fishermen toward Sri Lankan waters.
- Example: The 1983 Act bans trawling within three nautical miles of the Indian coastline, making deeper Sri Lankan waters more attractive despite the legal risks.

For Srilanka:

Protection of Northern Province Fishermen’s Livelihoods: Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen in the Northern Province rely on traditional fishing methods and face competition from Indian trawlers, which threatens their livelihoods.

Post-Civil War Economic Recovery: The Northern Province, which was heavily affected by the civil war, is still recovering economically. Safeguarding local fishing areas is seen as vital for the region’s rehabilitation and economic stability.
- Example: The Sri Lankan government prioritizes protecting fishing zones to support the economic revival of communities affected by the civil war.

Political and Nationalist Sentiments: There is domestic pressure on the Sri Lankan government to take a strong stance against perceived violations of territorial waters, especially from nationalist groups and local political parties.
- Example: In 2015, then-Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe defended the Sri Lankan Navy’s actions against Indian fishermen, reflecting nationalist sentiments on protecting maritime boundaries.

Why is resolving the “festering Palk Bay sheries dispute” considered crucial for the Tamil-speaking fishermen of Sri Lanka’s Northern Province?

Protection of Livelihoods: Tamil-speaking fishermen in Sri Lanka’s Northern Province depend on local marine resources for their survival. Illegal fishing by Indian trawlers reduces fish stocks, threatening their primary source of income.
- Example: Frequent incursions by Indian fishermen using bottom trawling disrupt the local fishing economy, making it difficult for Sri Lankan fishermen to sustain their livelihoods.

Environmental Sustainability: Bottom trawling by Indian fishermen causes severe damage to marine ecosystems, affecting fish breeding and long-term marine biodiversity.
- Example: The destruction of fish habitats due to bottom trawling reduces future fish yields, directly impacting the sustainability of fishing communities in the Northern Province.

Socio-Economic Recovery Post-Civil War: The Northern Province is still recovering from the socio-economic impacts of Sri Lanka’s civil war. Protecting their fishing waters is vital for long-term economic stability and community rebuilding.
- Example: Ensuring exclusive access to local waters helps these communities rebuild their economy and strengthens their post-war rehabilitation efforts.

What role can India play in resolving the Palk Bay fishing dispute? (Way forward)

Promoting Sustainable Fishing Practices: India can encourage and support its fishermen to adopt sustainable fishing methods, reducing the harmful impact of bottom trawling in Sri Lankan waters.
- Example: Expanding the Palk Bay deep-sea fishing scheme and integrating it with the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana can help Indian fishermen transition to deep-sea fishing, reducing pressure on the Palk Bay region.

Facilitating Bilateral Talks: India can work with Sri Lanka to resume and mediate talks between fishermen from both countries, fostering dialogue and finding mutually beneficial solutions.
- Example: India previously supported fishermen-level talks in 2016, which allowed both sides to voice concerns and seek collaborative solutions. Restarting such discussions can ease tensions.

Strengthening Legal and Diplomatic Cooperation: India can strengthen legal frameworks and diplomatic channels to enforce maritime boundaries while ensuring the protection of its fishermen’s rights.
- Example: The Joint Working Group on Fisheries (established in 2016) provides a platform for both governments to discuss and implement measures to prevent illegal fishing and resolve disputes amicably.

Mains PYQ:

Q In respect of India-Sri Lanka relations, discuss how do mestic factors influence foreign policy. (2013)

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