Author: CD Staff

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Context

• The India-Africa Defence Dialogue (IADD) was recently held on the sidelines of Defence Expo 2022 and successfully brought fifty African countries and India together on a single stage.
• The IADD adopted a ‘Gandhinagar declaration’ as an outcome document. It proposes to enhance cooperation in the field of training in all areas of mutual interest.
• In this context, in this edition of Burning issue, we will be analyzing the India-Africa relationship, its challenges to it and then the way forward.

Importance of Africa

[A] Geostrategic

• Africa is critical to India’s security, especially the Horn of Africa region, because of its proximity to India. The threat of radicalism, piracy, and organized crime emerges from this region

[B] Economic

• Africa can help us in diversifying our energy sources, which is one of the stated objectives of our Integrated Energy Policy
• Africa also contains a rich reservoir of valuable minerals, metals including gold and diamond
• Africa provides a space for Indian investment
• Africa has ample agricultural land which cab address India’s food security. India is looking at leasing land in Africa to overcome the land deficit that we face in terms of arable land

[C] Geopolitical

• Support of African countries is important for India’s aim of gaining a permanent seat in the UNSC
• Africa provides a space for displaying both India’s soft and hard power
• India has been actively involved in the peace and stability of African countries through UN Peacekeeping operations. India is involved in the capacity building of African countries. Africa is also the largest beneficiary of India’s ITEC programme

History of India-Africa relations

[A] Ancient Period

• During the ancient period, Indian merchants were constant look out beyond the Arabian Sea towards the west for lucrative markets. Slowly, the increasing people-to-people contacts made them a part of the ‘Indian Ocean circuit of trade’.
• They sailed regularly to the Zenj coast (Zanzibar) for palm oil, gold, copper, spices, ivory, rhino horn etc.
• Trade developed through the knowledge of favourable sea winds and the development of a suitable marine technology
• Periplus of Erythrean Sea, a first-century AD merchants’ sailor guide throws light on the thriving trade between India and the Western Indian Ocean region
• It also stated that India’s trading contacts were spread from Egypt to the coast of northern Somalia, the ancient land of Punt, the kingdom of Kush (Sudan) and Axum.

[B] Medieval Era 

• Venetian traveller Marco Polo mentioned explicitly the Gujarati and Saurashtrian merchants on Africa’s east coast
• The use of the Indian system of weights and measures and Cowries as currency pointed to the fact that Indians were playing a key role in this area
• Not only economic benefits, the trade also contributed to the development of internal links in the African continent even before the advent of Europeans
• By the seventeenth century, the nature of Indian Ocean trade underwent a radical change due to demand for captives who could be sold as slaves.
• A good example could be of ‘Malik Amber’ and the ‘Siddis’ who are still a part of the Indian population and are settled in parts of Gujarat, Karnataka and Hyderabad

[C] Colonial period

• With the advent of European colonial powers in India and Africa, the trade pattern underwent a significant change as Indo–African relations entered a new era of ‘colonialism’.
• The Indians who went to Africa as slaves and post abolition of slavery, as indentured labourers, and the merchant class of Gujarat slowly settled down there
• India’s link with the African continent dates back to the anti-apartheid struggle of Mahatma Gandhi with the colonial rulers in South Africa
• India has been aggressively putting forward the issue of apartheid on multilateral forums such as UN, NAM And Commonwealth

[D] Post-Colonial Period

• The foundations were laid by Mahatma Gandhi. According to him, there will be a “commerce of ideas and services and not of raw materials and goods like imperialist powers”. All the governments continue to take this approach as the foundation of India’s Africa Policy.

According to Vice President Hamid Ansari,“India shares Africa’s dreams and India-Africa cooperation is a genuine 2-way street partnership”

1^st phase (till 1960)

• Nehru talked about Afro-Asian solidarity. African countries provided strength to Nehru’s NAM. The policy in this phase is described as “ideational” and “pragmatic”

2^nd phase (1970s – 1990s):

• There was neglect of Africa because of India’s attention on South Asia and India’s attention on inward-looking foreign policy. Though India in this phase continued to support Africa against Apartheid.

3^rd phase (1990s onwards):

• This is the phase of re-engagement with Africa. However, the lead was taken by the private sector, rather than the government. The private sector of India should be given credit to push the attention of GoI towards the region of strategic and economic importance.

Present status of Ties

• The institutionalisation of relations: Since 2008, India and Africa’s relations have been institutionalized. The India-Africa Forum Summit constitutes the basic framework for the relations under the South-South Cooperation platform. So far 3 summits have been organized.
• Opening of embassies: In July 2019, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that India would open embassies in 18 African countries. This would result in Indian embassies being located in 47 of 54 African countries.
• Economic engagement: India’s economic engagement with Africa began intensifying in the early 2000s. India’s total trade with Africa grew from US$ 6.8 billion in 2003 to US$ 76.9 billion in 2018, and India is now Africa’s third-largest trade partner.
• Investments: Indian investments in Africa have also grown rapidly in the last decade and the country is currently the seventh-largest investor in Africa. The scale of India’s development cooperation with Africa has also grown rapidly.
• The flow of LoC: From 2003 onwards, India began to use concessional lines of credit (LoC) as one of its key development partnership instruments to fund the construction of railway lines, electrification and irrigation projects, farm mechanisation projects, among others. India has sanctioned 182 LoC projects in Africa of about US$ 10.5 billion
• Bilateral cooperation: includes solar energy development, climate change talks, information technology, cyber security, maritime security, disaster relief, counter-terrorism and military training.
• Soft power projection: India provides about 50,000 scholarships to African students each year under its ITEC programme. Also, the huge Indian diaspora is a major asset.

10 guiding principles for India-Africa engagement

In July 2018, Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed the Ugandan Parliament during his state visit and outlined a vision for not just a bilateral partnership with Africa, but also a partnership in multilateral forums by espousing the ‘10 guiding principles for India-Africa engagement’

• Africa will be at the top of our priorities. We will continue to intensify and deepen our engagement with Africa. As we have shown, it will be sustained and regular.
• Our development partnership will be guided by your priorities. We will build as much local capacity and create local opportunities as possible. It will be on terms that are comfortable to you, that will liberate your potential and not constrain your future.
• We will keep our markets open and make it easier and more attractive to trade with India. We will support our industry to invest in Africa.
• We will harness India’s experience with the digital revolution to support Africa’s development; improve the delivery of public services; extend education and health; spread digital literacy; expand financial inclusion; and mainstream the marginalised.
• Africa has 60 per cent of the world’s arable land, but produces just 10 percent of the global output. We will work with you to improve Africa’s agriculture.
• Our partnership will address the challenges of climate change.
• We will strengthen our cooperation and mutual capabilities in combating terrorism and extremism; keeping our cyberspace safe and secure; and, supporting the UN in advancing and keeping the peace.
• We will work with African nations to keep the oceans open and free for the benefit of all nations. The world needs cooperation and competition in the eastern shores of Africa and the eastern Indian Ocean.
• As global engagement in Africa increases, we must all work together to ensure that Africa does not once again turn into a theatre of rival ambitions, but becomes a nursery for the aspirations of Africa’s youth.
• Just as India and Africa fought colonialism together, we will work together for a just, representative and democratic global order that has a voice for one-third of humanity that lives in Africa and India.

Challenges

• Declining trade: Bilateral trade was valued at $55.9 billion in 2020-21, fell by $10.8 billion compared to 2019-20, and $15.5 billion compared to the peak year of 2014-15.
• Decline in investment: India’s investments in Africa too saw a decrease from $3.2 billion in 2019-20 to $2.9 billion in 2020-21.
• Short-term focused: Indian LoCs have not been designed to achieve a larger development goal such as food security, health security, clean energy or education for all. LoCs are typically used by recipient countries to fund small development projects such as roads, bridges, railway lines, power transmission and water supply systems.
• Competing powers in Africa: India is not the only external power engaging Africa, developed countries and other emerging powers like China, Brazil and Russia have also been involved in various activities across the continent.
• Lack of synchronisation: there is no synchronisation between different development instruments. LoCs, grants and capacity-building initiatives operate as standalone instruments of development cooperation, with almost no links with each other. 
• Racial attacks: Despite frequent references to Afro-Asian solidarity between the two nations, instances of violence against African students are common in India.

Chinese challenge in Africa

• China has been investing heavily across the African continent throughout the last decade.
• China’s interests are related to four major areas: infrastructural projects, financial assistance, natural resources and maritime interests.
• While access to Africa’s natural resources, its untapped markets and support for the ‘One China Policy’ are primary drivers of Chinese engagement with the region, there are other factors at play.

What India should do?

• A clear strategy for African development: India should prepare a focused Africa strategy for the next decade and identify a few areas for closer cooperation.
• Continue the current focus on capacity building: A simple focus on building physical infrastructure and economic growth will not contribute to a stable and prosperous Africa. Investment in human capital is the key to development in Africa.
• Harness Indian civil society organizations, NGOs, and Indian diaspora: The Government should explore greater collaboration with them to implement development projects in Africa at low costs. Some Indian organizations like Pratham and Barefoot College are already playing an important role in Africa.
• Timely completion of projects: Efforts must be made to expedite the LoC projects. Lessons should be drawn from other countries that have a much better record in implementation.

Steps taken so far

• The ITEC programme: In 1964, India launched the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme to provide technical assistance through human resource development to other developing countries. Africa is a key beneficiary of the programme with nearly 50 percent of the ITEC slots reserved for countries from the region.
• Asia-Africa growth corridor: The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor or AAGC is an economic cooperation agreement between the governments of India, Japan and multiple African countries. India on 25 May 2017 launched a vision document for Asia-Africa Growth Corridor or AAGC at the African Development Bank meeting.
• Pan African e-Network : The late Indian President APJ Abdul Kalam initiated the Pan African e-Network (PAeN) in 2004. Over the years, PAeN has significantly contributed to the advancement of tele-education and telemedicine in Africa.
• Maritime cooperation: India’s maritime cooperation with African nations, particularly those in the East & Southern African region, is also growing. The Indian Navy took part in Exercise IBSAMAR-VI in South Africa in 2018 alongside the navies of Brazil and South Africa.
• Peacekeeping operations: India participated in almost all UN peacekeeping operations (PKOs) in Africa. With 200,000 soldiers and police officers joining the blue helmets since independence, India is today Africa’s fourth-largest contributor of troops to PKO
• Duty-free tariff preferential scheme: Launched in 2008, India’s duty-free tariff preferential scheme for Least Developed Nations has benefited 33 African states. The India–Africa Forum Summit- the official platform for African-Indian relations, is also contributing immensely to this building-up process.
• India Africa Defence Ministers conclave: India has also launched several initiatives to develop closer relations, including the first-ever India Africa Defence Ministers conclave in February this year on the margins of the Defence Expo 2020.

Way forward

• For mutual benefit, Africa and India should remain optimally engaged. The third India-Africa Forum Summit was held in 2015. The fourth summit, pending since last year, should be held as soon as possible.
• Fresh financial resources for grants and concessional loans to Africa must be allocated, as previous allocations stand almost fully exhausted. The promotion of economic relations demands a higher priority.
• To impart a 21st-century complexion to the partnership, developing and deepening collaborations in health, space and digital technologies are essential.
• India should continue its role in peacekeeping in Africa, in lending support to African counter-terrorism operations, and contributing to African institutions through training and capacity-enhancing assistance.
• Improve the experiences of Africans in India. Indian government should ensure that Africans studying or working in India are safe and enjoy their stay in the country. Efforts should also be made to educate Indians about Africa so that people-to-people connections between India and Africa flourish.
• Promote development-friendly private investments. The presence of Indian companies in Africa has grown rapidly in the last two decades. Given the emphasis on mutual benefit in its strategy, India’s development cooperation should be aligned with its commercial interests in Africa. Therefore, India should try to support Indian companies making the investment in development-friendly projects for mutual benefit.
• To overcome the China challenge in Africa, increased cooperation between India and its international allies, rates a priority. The recent India-EU Summit has identified Africa as a region where a partnership-based approach will be followed.

Conclusion

• Africa is a continent on the move, characterised by rapid economic growth, rising educational and health standards, increasing gender parity, and expanding infrastructure and connectivity.
• India has an intrinsic interest in helping Africa achieve progress. The spirit of “developing together as equals” defines this bilateral partnership. A resurging Africa and a rising India can give a strong impetus to South-South Cooperation.

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Context

• The Two-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court in the popular “Hijab case” has delivered a split verdict. The matter will be now heard by a larger Constitution Bench headed by the Chief Justice of India.
• Earlier in march 2022, stating that wearing the hijab is not an essential part of Islam and freedom of religion under Article 25 of the Constitution is subject to reasonable restrictions, a full bench of the Karnataka High Court had dismissed a batch of petitions filed by Muslim girls studying in pre-university colleges in Udupi seeking the right to wear hijabs in classrooms.
• This decision of the Karnataka HC was challenged in the Supreme court which now received this verdict.
• Thus, in this edition of the burning issue we will be analyzing the ‘Hijab Issue’; the verdicts of different courts, and finally a way forward.

What is a Hijab?

• Hijab is a scarf or clothing worn by Muslim women to cover their hair to maintain modesty and privacy from unrelated males either in public or at home.
• The concept, however, is not unique to Islam but embraced by other religions too such as Judaism and Christianity. 

Different kinds of veiled clothing

• Hijab: The hijab covers the hair and chest and is common among Muslim women in South East Asia. Hijab is also a general term referring to the practice of wearing veils of all kinds. 
• Niqab: It is a veil that covers the face and head, keeping the eye area open. 
• Burqa: covers the entire body including the whole face, with a mesh window for the woman to see out of. 
• Khimar: It is a long scarf that covers the head and chest but keeps the face uncovered. 
• Shayla: A rectangular piece of cloth wrapped around the head and pinned in place. 

What is the Hijab Issue?

• The origin of the issue: The controversy erupted nationally on January 1, 2022, when six girl students of the Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College in Udupi gave a press conference to protest the college authorities’ denial of permission to them to keep wearing their hijabs after they entered their classrooms.
• Student’s response: The students portrayed the ban as an attack on their religious rights as a minority. Several educational institutions protested against the Karnataka government’s compulsory uniform order and denied entry to Muslim girls wearing the hijab. This was challenged in the Karnataka High Court (HC).

How is religious freedom protected under the Constitution?

• Article 25(1) of the Constitution guarantees the “freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice and propagate religion”.
• It is a right that guarantees negative liberty — which means that the state shall ensure that there is no interference or obstacle to exercising this freedom.
• However, like all fundamental rights, the state can restrict the right for grounds of public order, decency, morality, health and other state interests.

What was the Karnataka High Court decision?

• Upholding the ban: On March 15th, 2022, a three-Judge Bench of the Karnataka High Court comprising Chief Justice Ritu Raj Awasthi and Justices Krishna Dixit and J.M. Khazi upheld the ban on the hijab in the State’s educational institutions.
• Distinction needed: In the Judgment, the Court created a distinction between ‘Freedom of Conscience’ and ‘Religious Expression’, claiming that while conscience is an internal belief, religious expression is an outward expression of this belief. Wearing the hijab is a form of religious expression, and must be subject to the Essential Religious Practices test.
• Not an essential practice: The Court held that wearing the hijab is not an Essential Religious Practice. It did not merit protection under Article 25 of the Constitution of India, 1950.
• Should be within fundamental rights ambit: Further, the Court stated that even if it were to accept that wearing the hijab is an Essential Religious Practice, the practice would receive constitutional protection only if it did not conflict with constitutional values such as equality and dignity. The requirement that a practice must be an Essential Religious Practice for constitutional protection is a threshold requirement. 
• Do not violate the right to freedom: The Court held that the ban on the hijab in State educational institutions did not violate their Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression under Article 19(1) of the constitution.

What Supreme Court’s spilt verdict says?

(A) Arguments of SC Justice Hemant Gupta:

• Justice Hemant Gupta upheld Karnataka’s prohibitive government order of February 5, saying “apparent symbols of religious belief cannot be worn to secular schools maintained from State funds”.
• Justice Gupta held that adherence to the uniform was a reasonable restriction to free expression. The discipline reinforced equality. The State had never forced students out of State schools by restricting hijab. The decision to stay out was a “voluntary act” of the student.
• Justice Gupta held that discipline was one of the attributes students learn in schools; that defiance of rules would be an antithesis of discipline. The students had a right to education under Article 21 but not of insisting on wearing something additional to their uniform, as part of their religion, in a secular school.
• He also said ‘secularity’ meant uniformity, manifested by parity among students in terms of uniformity. Justice Gupta pointed out that the uniform is an equalizer of inequalities. If students of one faith insisted on a particular dress, others would follow suit. Permitting one religion to wear religious symbols would be an antithesis of secularism.
• Justice Gupta, agreed with the government that the “ethic of fraternity is best served by complete erasure of all differences”, especially religious. Wearing hijabs in secular schools “would stand out and overtly appear differently. None of the fundamental rights were absolute and all of them should be read together as a whole.

(B) Arguments of SC Justice Dhulia

• In his divergent opinion, Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia said secularity meant tolerance to “diversity”.
• Justice Dhulia stated that the point of whether the hijab was an essential religious practice under Islam or not was essential for the determination of the dispute. According to him, “If the belief is sincere, and it harms no one else, there can be no justifiable reasons for banning the hijab in a classroom.” The young girl petitioners had asserted their individual and not community right.
• Courts are not the forums to solve theological questions as there will always be more than one religious view on a particular religious matter
• Wearing or not wearing a hijab to school was “ultimately a matter of choice”. For girls from conservative families, “her hijab is her ticket to education”.
• Justice Dhulia disagreed with the idea of forced homogeneity. He said schools and pre-university colleges were the “perfect institutions” for children to learn the rich diversity of India and imbibe values of tolerance and accommodation.
• He also referred to the Puttaswamy judgment and in particular Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s observations on the link between privacy and human dignity.

What is the essential religious practices test?

• Shirur Mutt case: In 1954, the Supreme Court held that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion.
• The test to determine what is integral is termed the“essential religious practices” test.
• The test, a judicial determination of religious practices, has often been criticized by legal experts as it pushes the court to delve into theological spaces.
• In criticism of the test, scholars agree that the court should prohibit religious practices for public order rather than determine what is so essential to a religion that it needs to be protected.
• Several instances of a court applying the test
• In a 2004 ruling, the SC held that the Ananda Marga sect had no fundamental right to perform Tandava dance in public streets since it did not constitute an essential religious practice of the sect.
• While these issues are largely understood to be community-based, there are instances in which the court has applied the test to individual freedoms as well.
• For example, in 2016, the SC upheld the discharge of a Muslim airman from the Indian Air Force for keeping a beard.
• Armed Force Regulations, 1964, prohibits the growth of hair by Armed Forces personnel, except for “personnel whose religion prohibits the cutting of hair or shaving of face”.
• The court essentially held that keeping a beard was not an essential part of Islamic practices.

Issues over the doctrine

• In the beginning, the court engaged with the question of whether untouchability, manifested in restrictions on entry into temples, was an “essential part of the Hindu religion”.
• After examining selected Hindu texts, it concluded that untouchability was not an essential Hindu practice.
• The idea of providing constitutional protection only to those elements of religion that the court considers “essential” is problematic as it assumes that one element or practice of religion is independent of other elements or practices.
• So, while the essentiality test privileges certain practices over others, it is all practices taken together that constitute a religion.

How have courts ruled so far on the issue of a hijab?

• There are two sets of rulings of the Kerala High Court, particularly on the right of Muslim women to dress according to the tenets of Islam, throwing up conflicting answers.
• In 2015, at least two petitions were filed before the Kerala High Court challenging the prescription of dress code for the NEET exam which prescribed wearing clothes with a certain dress code.
• Here the Kerala HC directed the CBSE to put in place additional measures for checking students who “intend to wear a dress according to their religious custom, but contrary to the dress code”.
• Amna Bint Basheer v Central Board of Secondary Education (2016): Here, the Kerala HC examined the issue more closely.
• The Court held that the practice of wearing a hijab constitutes an essential religious practice but did not quash the CBSE rule.
• The court once again allowed for the “additional measures” and safeguards put in place in 2015.
• Fathima Tasneem v State of Kerala (2018): On the issue of a uniform prescribed by a school, the Kerala HC held that the collective rights of an institution would be given primacy over the individual rights of the petitioner.

Way Forward

• Pluralism and inclusiveness are characterized by religious freedom. Its purpose is to promote social harmony and diversity.
• There is no one uniform code today which is mandated throughout the State. It would be a depressing response from a government that prioritizes uniformity over diversity.
• Religious fanaticism, whether by the majority or the minority, has only damaged the secular mosaic.
• Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women’s equality, many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. 
• The dress code was seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and worked to desexualize women in the public sphere to allow them to enjoy equal rights of completely legal, economic, and political status.

Conclusion

• Given the split verdict, it will be a while before the final verdict in the matter is delivered. Ultimately, it must be remembered the State has a responsibility towards the education of the girl and her future and maintaining the secular fabric in India.
• Thus the government, civil society, religious and student bodies must try to come together and look for an amicable out-of-court solution to the issue which is in the best interest of all and also reduces dependency on courts for social reforms.

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Context

• Recently, External Affairs Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar snubbed US  (while justifying its ties with Russia) over opting for Pakistan’s Dictatorship as a reliable partner over India.
• The minister is being praised by several experts for such graceful criticism of the US and at the same time highlights the independent foreign policy conduct of India in recent times.
• Thus, this edition of the burning issue will highlight the evolution of Indian foreign policy, its current standing and its way forward. 

What are foreign policy and diplomacy?

• Foreign Policy is a framework within which the Government of a given country conducts its relations with the outside world in different formats i.e. bilateral, regional and multilateral or global.
• Diplomacy on its part is a profession, skill and art of managing a country’s relations with the rest of the world to achieve the objectives of the country’s foreign policy. Broadly, Diplomacy can be political, economic or cultural, and ideally should work in tandem.
• As a rule, diplomacy is pursued through established diplomatic channels and mechanisms. It may or may not always be transparent and in public knowledge. At times It can be pursued through back-door channels or informal Track 1.5 /Track2 mechanisms.

Objectives of Indian foreign policy

• The first and foremost objective of India’s Foreign Policy –like that of any other country is to secure its national interests.
• The scope of “national interests” is fairly wide. In our case it includes for instance: securing our borders to protect territorial integrity, countering cross-border terrorism, energy security, food security, cyber security, creation of world-class infrastructure, non-discriminatory global trade practices, equitable global responsibility for the protection of the environment, reform of institutions of global governance to reflect the contemporary realities, disarmament, regional stability, international peace and so on.
• In short, our Foreign policy has at least four important goals– To protect India from traditional and non-traditional threats; To create an external environment which is conducive to inclusive development of India so that the benefits of growth can reach the poorest of the poor in the country; To ensure that India’s voice is heard on global forums and that India can influence world opinion on issues of global dimensions such as terrorism, climate change, disarmament, reforms of institutions of global governance, and To engage and protect Indian Diaspora.

Evolution of Indian foreign policy

(A) Phase of the cold war

• Navigating the Cold War- The NAM way – The first high point of Indian diplomacy can thus be considered to be the decision of the then leadership not to take sides in the Cold War. This led to the now well-known Policy of Non-Alignment. It was a concept which was not only not understood but also fiercely opposed by the two global camps. India paid the price for it, with the West taking non-alignment as a cover for a pro-Soviet tilt, which led to its alignment with Pakistan, including militarily.
• Leading the decolonization movement– The second, somewhat linked, the high point of that era was the role India played in becoming the voice of the former colonies of Asia and Africa and the moral and political force for decolonization. Many initiatives, epitomized by the Asian Relations Conference, were taken to give Asia its rightful place in a badly divided world.
• Relation with Pakistan and China– The third high point relates to the period of the late 1950s and 1960s when India was embroiled in wars with both China and Pakistan. Indian diplomacy was called upon to rally world opinion against the aggressors and defend India’s interests bilaterally and in the United Nations. Despite the best efforts of Pakistan and China, India managed to limit the damage to its interests in the then State of J&K, and even blunt Pakistani efforts.
• Bangladesh war The liberation of Bangladesh in 1971 and the events leading to it marked a turning point in Indian diplomacy. India successfully campaigned throughout the world to highlight the atrocities, crimes and killings perpetrated by the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan. It was a particularly daunting diplomatic task because this was also the time the US was making its opening to the Peoples’s Republic of China. Pakistan was co-opted in this effort, with the result that the Indian diplomatic machinery was pitted against the powerful US-Pakistan-China axis.

(B) Post-cold war phase

• The nuclear weapon state-The the late nineties and early 2000s witnessed other major developments. India conducted its nuclear weapons tests in 1998 and became a nuclear weapon power. A major diplomatic effort was launched across the world to explain India’s security challenges. A special channel of communication was opened with the US which led to key strategic understandings between India and the US, leading to a breakthrough in the relationship.
• Neighbourhood first- the Gujral doctrine- The Gujral Doctrine is a set of five principles to guide the conduct of foreign relations with India’s immediate neighbours. These five principles arise from the belief that India’s stature and strength cannot be isolated from the quality of its relations with its neighbours. Gujral’s policy of non-reciprocal accommodation led to the signing of a 30-year treaty between India and Bangladesh on December 12, 1996. NDA government (1998-2004) led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee and the United Progressive Alliance government led by Manmohan Singh have continued with Gujral’s foreign policy which emphasized the need to have “a peaceful, stable and constructive environment in India’s neighbourhood” which is being regarded as “vital for the goals of accelerated development for India and the region”. It, thus, recognises the supreme importance of friendly, cordial relations with neighbours.
• Connection to ASEAN: The Look east policy– The period 1991-1992 saw the enunciation of India’s Look East Policy. India became a sectoral partner of ASEAN in 1992 and was upgraded to a Full Dialogue Partner in 1995. In 2005, India became a Partner of the East Asia Summit process. All these moves were meant to assert India’s natural links with the rapidly growing East Asian ‘tigers’, and establish its presence in China’s neighbourhood. The “Look East” Policy was the outcome of two major events – the strategic setback to India as a result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the balance of payments crisis of 1991.

(C) Post-2008 Financial Crisis

• Membership to BRICS- BRICS is a grouping of the five emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, mooted in the year 2001 by Goldman Sachs, these five emerging countries from different regions of the world are increasingly seen as the centre of global power transition. Coinciding with the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) of 2008-09 the main aim of the grouping is to foster cooperation, policy coordination and political dialogue regarding international economic and financial matters. India has been an active participant in this organisation from its inception. Maintaining economic growth that benefits India’s citizens in terms of job creation, GDP growth, and poverty alleviation is in the country’s national interest.
• US partnership growth– The signing of the Indo-US Nuclear Agreement, India’s membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group, and the lifting of sanctions on technology transfer to India all happened in 2008. Put together these were breakthroughs with major ramifications. The Agreement on cooperation on civil nuclear energy was arrived at with bipartisan support in the US, thanks to Indian diplomatic efforts. It legitimized India’s nuclear weapon program and transformed India’s relations with the US.

(D) Current Phase (2014-Till Now)  

• Balancing divergent coalitions- India’s foreign policy has been successfully managing several divergent coalitions at the same time, hence upholding its ‘strategic Autonomy’. Coalitions like SCO, RIC are being balanced with QUAD and JAI. Similarly, the Arab world is being balanced with a growing partnership with Israel and a relationship with US and G7 nations to that with Russia and China.
• From Non-alignment to Multiple alignments– The nonaligned movement has lost its earlier relevance with the end of the Cold War and India no longer refers to nonalignment as the basis of its foreign policy. In the new context, we now speak of India pursuing a policy of multi-alignment or issue-based alignment. This explains the transformations of our ties with the US that includes the signing of various foundational defence agreements and substantial defence purchases, designation as Major Defence Partner, elaborate military exercises as well as membership of the Quad and a commitment to the Indo-Pacific concept. This explains also our membership in BRICS, the SCO and the continuation of the Russia-India-China dialogue. In other words, we are pursuing our interests in all forums without either exclusivity or entering into alliances with any set of countries.
• Soft power projection- On 11 December 2014, a record 177 countries in the UN co-sponsored and voted in favour of declaring an International Day of Yoga on June 21st every year. This was an extraordinary display of India’s soft power and acceptability cutting across regions, religions, colours, and languages. Other than this, multiple temples are being opened worldwide, cultural programmes, 150 years of MK Gandhi’s Birth celebrations around the world testimonies India’s growing Soft power.
• Aid diplomacy– The diplomatic effort launched by India to help global efforts in combatting the Covid pandemic in 2020-2021, however, was unprecedented in terms of its scale and reach. It established India’s role as the pharmacy of the world. Similarly, humanitarian operations such as Vande Bharat which brought back millions of Indians during the Covid pandemic in 2020 and 2021 were the largest such exercise conducted. Operation Ganga was launched to bring back stranded Indian students from the war zone in Ukraine in 2022. The last few years have seen a much bigger deployment of Indian diplomatic efforts in the service of Indians overseas. Today, the interests of the almost 31 million-strong Indian diaspora are a top priority for the government.
• Taking up leadership role– India has successfully created international coalitions that contribute to global welfare based on India’s national experience and strengths. These are specific and practical initiatives that bring diplomacy and real-life challenges together. Prominent among these are the International Solar Alliance, the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, and Traditional Medicine. We have entered into an era of proactive malalignments and building international coalitions of common interest.
• Indo-pacific construct promotion– The geo-strategic events currently playing out in the Indo-Pacific region bears a resemblance to the political environment in which ancient Indian strategic thought in Kautilya’s Arthashastra took shape. External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar’s characterisation of the region as representing the “emergence of multi-polarity and the benefits of rebalancing”, is starkly similar to how Arthashastra describes the political landscape of the ancient mahajanapada kingdoms. In many ways, the churn in the two oceans—the Indian and Pacific—symbolises a “return of history”, to borrow a phrase used by Jaishankar at the first edition of the Indo-Pacific Business Summit in June 2021. The Indo-Pacific, seen through a maritime prism, necessitates a strategic preoccupation characteristically different from a purely continental one.

Long cherished goals of Indian foreign policy: The Challenges

• Reform global political and financial system- India since the cold war phase has been trying to reform the global political system represented by the UN General assembly, its several bodies, WTO, and IMF to make them more democratic and representative thus making them work in favour of least developed nations also.
• Permanent UNSC seat- Minister Jaishankar has aptly pointed out that excluding India which will in time be the most populous state in the world and the third largest economy would call into question the representative nature of the UNSC. India has recently started putting strongly its demand for a permanent seat at UNSC and overall UNSC reforms. India has formed a grouping called ‘G4 nations’ including Germany, japan and brazil to promote the idea of UNSC reforms.
• Pakistan conundrum- India and Pakistan, the two nuclear-armed giants of South Asia. Disputes over their shared border and the territory of Kashmir have been a recurrent source of conflict between the two countries throughout their histories, and new geopolitical alignments, changes in conventional and nuclear military capabilities, and deep mistrust continue to forestall any normalization of ties. China’s rise and the attendant great power competition have complicated both Islamabad’s and New Delhi’s strategic calculus as they both look to balance relations with Washington and Beijing.

Way forward

• Adding Ethical Values to Indian Foreign Policy: Mahatma Gandhi said, politics without principles is a death trap. India should move towards ethical persuasion, thus reclaiming moral leadership on the world stage similar to NAM.
• Becoming a Rule maker and not just a rules taker: India should actively assert itself during the formulation process of world norms, from the environment to economics.
• Balancing approach: India must remain balanced in the global rivalry between China and the U.S., as what happens in Asia affects us most. At a regional level, India should hedge Chinese expansion by cementing ties with Vietnam, Japan and Australia.
• Promote world peace: The focus of India’s foreign policy should not be limited to seeking a permanent seat in Security Council or revenge for historical wrongs but welfare and peace should be given more importance.
• Finding new partners: India needs the world for energy and other resource endowments. Finding partners who share a common interest in terms of energy security, climate change, cyber security etc is the way forward
• Focusing on neighbours also: A concerted focus on the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) and the Indian Ocean Rim Association of Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC) is needed given China’s increasing presence in both regions.

Conclusion

• Today, India is a significant player on the global stage by its strength as a rising power. It is a member of the G20, is invited to the G7 meetings and is a lead player in Climate Change negotiations through its initiatives in this area. 
• We are living in a dynamic world. India’s foreign policy is therefore geared up to be proactive, flexible as well as pragmatic to make quick adjustments to respond to evolving situations. In the implementation of its foreign policy, India, however, invariably adheres to a set of basic principles on which no compromise is made.
• As we celebrate 75 years of our Independence, the Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav, we should be proud of our diplomatic history and the contributions to it by successive generations of Indian diplomats as well as governments. 

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Context

• Recently, a Tamil movie- Ponniyin Selvan I, based on Kalki’s wonderful creation of a world of the Cholas, has been released in Indian theatres.
• The movie has renewed the interest in knowing more about one of the oldest and longest-ruling dynasties in the history of Southern India spreading over four centuries.
• Therefore, this edition of the Burning Issue will talk about the Great Chola Empire and its achievements.

About the Cholas

• The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in world history.
• The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.
• As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.

Origin

• Little knowledge: There is very little written evidence for the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil literature of the Sangam Period, oral traditions, religious texts, and temple and copperplate inscriptions.
• From Asokan edicts: Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan Empire’s neighbors to the South (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13), who was thought not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.
• From Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. 
• Mahavamsa: a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts several conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.

Territorial extent

• Kaveri and Tungabhadra valley: The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valleyofthe Kaveri river. Still, they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India, south of the Tungabhadra, and held as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 AD.
• Southeast Asia: The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, South-eastern, and eastern Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya empire based on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian maritime capacity.
• Maldives: During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the Maldives in the south to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh as the northern limit. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-day Sri Lanka, and occupied Maldives islands.
• North India: His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the Chola territory by sending a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala.
• Controlling Sri Vijay Empire: By 1019, he also completely conquered the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and annexed it to the Chola empire.^[6] In 1025, Rajendra Chola also successfully invaded the cities of the Srivijaya empire, based on the island of Sumatra. However, the Chola influence on Srivijava would last until 1070, when the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279) would still rule portions of Southern India.

History of the Chola Rulers

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods:

(A) Early Cholas

• The earliest Chola kings, there is tangible evidence mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• The Sangam literature records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.
• Two names prominent among those Chola kings who feature in Sangam literature are Karikala and Kocengannan.
• Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. 
• The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.

(B) Medieval Cholas- The Imperial Cholas

• Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century.
• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history. He took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in 850 CE, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.
• The second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty.
• In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala.^[52]
• Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom.
• At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari–Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep, and Maldives.
• Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India.
• Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there.
• This expedition had such a great impression on the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form of Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

• The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, and other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha.
• However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215.
• Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire.
• However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son, and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas.

Administration and society

(A) General administration

• System of Government:  In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. The Cholas’ system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held.
• Division of territory: The Chola Dynasty was divided into several provinces called mandalas which were further divided into valanadus, which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams.
• Land assessment: There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre.
• At the local government level: every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram, nadu or kottam, depending on the area. A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.
• Justice: was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishments for minor crimes were in the form of fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself.

(B) Military

• Army: The Chola dynasty had a robust military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams.
• Forts and palaces: The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps.
• Navy: The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.
• Patronization of martial arts: A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.

(C) Economy

• Economy structure: Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers—at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation of commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centers.
• Exports: One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets.
• Weaving: The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.
• Metal crafts: reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major export item.
• Agriculture: was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture.
• Internal trade: The metal industries and the jeweler’s art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade.

(D) Society

• Origin of guilds: During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence.
• The Vellalar community: was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. 
• The Ulavar community: were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar.
• The Kaikolar community: were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership.
• Education: The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans.

(E) Foreign trade

• Link to foreign markets: The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
• Connectivity to China: Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese.

(F) Canals and water tanks

• Canals: There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c. 900–1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal.
• Tanks: Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas.

Cultural contribution

(A) Architecture and sculpture

• Cultural influence in South-east Asia: Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with South Indian architecture. According to the Malay chronicle, Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.
• New form of architecture: The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. A new development was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple. The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

• Temple building: received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, was built by Rajaraja. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.
• Sculptures: The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

(B) Literature

• Tamil works: The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.
• Jain and Buddhist: authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors. The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.
• Commentaries: were written on the great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but also mentions ethics of warfare. Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature.
• Telugu literature: The period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions.
• Devotional literature: the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.

(C) Religion

• Largely Hindu: In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties.
• Patronized Buddhism: The second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903 CE), built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.

Decline of the Cholas

• Rise of Pandyan’s: The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. During the rule of Kulothunga Chola II, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.
• Loss of Sri Lanka: the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India.

Current significance

• Inspired tamil literature: The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.
• Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. More recently, Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola’s construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film Aayirathil Oruvan, and the 2022 film Ponniyin Selvan: I. The 2022 movie was based on a novel of the same name.

Conclusion

• Our history books offer little to read about ancient Tamil kingdoms such as the Cholas.
• The monumental relics left behind; the majestic bronzes and 1,00,000 inscriptions and temples which are characteristic of the times, are for the eyes to feast on.

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