N4S

India’s embrace of autonomous weapons marks a strategic leap in modern warfare, but it risks outpacing accountability and global norms.

UPSC often asks internal security questions rooted in emerging threats – like the 2023 drone question-but aspirants often reduce drones to mere gadgets, missing deeper themes like AI warfare, border management, and strategic autonomy.
This article fills that gap by linking India’s drone policy to shifts in warfare, tech capabilities, and ethical dilemmas-highlighted in sections like “Changing Geometries of the Battlefield” and the nuanced take on global legal norms like the Martens Clause and UN CCW.

PYQ ANCHORING

GS 3: The use of unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs) by our adversaries across the bor ders to ferry arms/ammunitions, drugs, etc., is a serious threat to the internal security. Comment on the measures being taken to tackle this threat. [2023]

Microthemes: Border Area Management

Modern warfare is undergoing a seismic transformation. Among the most prominent drivers of this surge is the exponential growth of autonomous weapons systems (AWS), including drones, missiles, and robotics. Ukraine’s recent “Operation Spider Web,” which involved launching inexpensive quadcopters from within Russia, marks a watershed moment in the evolution of military strategy and shows that old-style air defence systems are becoming outdated.

India too is embracing this shift. The Indian drone market is projected to grow to $11 billion by 2030, constituting over 12% of the global drone industry (Drone Federation of India, 2024). Meanwhile, initiatives like Operation Sindoor demonstrate India’s commitment to integrating AWS into its strategic arsenal.

Impact of Changing Geometries of the Battlefield

AWS now allow real-time, low-cost, high-impact warfare from anywhere—breaking the geography of conventional frontlines. Historically, each phase of military innovation has reshaped the battlefield:

Period	Key Innovations	Impact on Battlefield
Ancient Warfare (Pre-500 AD)	Spears, shields, chariots, cavalry	Formation-based battles (e.g., phalanx), cavalry mobility added speed and surprise
Medieval Warfare (500–1500 AD)	Castles, crossbows, longbows, armored knights	Defensive structures dominated; archery challenged traditional close combat
Gunpowder Era (1500–1800)	Muskets, cannons, explosives	Decline of knights and castles; infantry and artillery became central to warfare
Industrial Age Warfare (1800–1914)	Rifles, railroads, telegraphs	Mass mobilization; logistics and communication shaped strategy
World Wars Era (1914–1945)	Tanks, aircraft, submarines, chemical weapons	WWI saw trench warfare; WWII introduced blitzkrieg and air supremacy
Cold War & Nuclear Age (1945–1990)	Nuclear weapons, ICBMs, early computers, satellites	Strategy based on deterrence (MAD); space and missile technology became critical
Information Age Warfare (1990–2010)	Precision-guided missiles, drones, cyber tools	“Surgical strikes” and real-time surveillance; rise of asymmetric warfare
Networked & Drone Warfare (2010–Present)	Cheap drones, AI, cyberweapons, autonomous systems	Decentralized attacks, saturation tactics; traditional air defence increasingly obsolete

Significance of AWS for India

Strategic Deterrence and Second-Strike Capability: Long-range drones and hypersonic weapons will enhance India’s nuclear posture through credible second-strike capabilities. Systems like Agni-V, BrahMos-II, and loitering munitions deter conventional and asymmetric threats. These also support non-nuclear escalation dominance through swarm drones. Example: Agni-V and BrahMos-II extend deterrence.
Border Surveillance and National Security: UAVs such as Heron, Rustom-II, and Tapas-BH provide persistent monitoring of LAC and LoC, especially after the 2020 Galwan clash. These are vital across tough terrains in Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Northeast. Post-Galwan, India expanded drone deployments along borders. Example: Tapas-BH deployed along eastern Ladakh
Counter-Terrorism and Internal Stability: Drones enable precision strikes in Naxal-affected zones and insurgent hotbeds in J&K and the Northeast. AWS minimize collateral damage and human risk during operations. AI-powered drones provide real-time reconnaissance for surgical missions. Example: Drone kills top militant in Pulwama
Disaster Management and Dual-Use Application: Drones are deployed for flood mapping, earthquake rescue, and disaster relief delivery. Their ability to access hazardous or remote zones reduces response time. In 2023, drones were key in Odisha cyclone evacuation planning. Example: Drones used post-Odisha cyclone floods
Indigenous R&D and Economic Growth: India’s drone sector is projected to reach $11 billion by 2030, supporting Aatmanirbhar Bharat. DRDO’s ALFA-S, HAL’s combat UAVs, and startups like ideaForge are driving innovation. The Drone Federation of India is mobilizing industry expansion. Example: Drone Federation targets $11B market
Air Defence and Force Multiplication: Systems like IACCS and Akashteer enable real-time tracking and response against aerial threats. AWS complement manned systems in India’s multilayered air defence. Automated UAV fleets allow fewer troops to manage wider surveillance. Example: Akashteer integrates real-time threat response
Export Potential and Soft Power Projection: India aims to export $5 billion in defence hardware by 2025, including UAVs. Drones have been sold to Armenia, with export ambitions targeting Africa, ASEAN, and West Asia. This bolsters India’s global tech profile. Example: Drone exports initiated to Armenia
AI Ecosystem and Technological Leadership: AWS investments are driving India’s AI and robotics push under MeitY’s IndiaAI mission. These platforms create high-tech jobs, stimulate R&D, and support global norms on responsible AWS use via G-20. Example: DRDO AI Lab boosts AWS innovation

Challenges and Risks Associated with AWS

Ethical and Legal Dilemmas: Delegating lethal decisions to machines challenges International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and ethics. UN Special Rapporteurs have called for a ban on Lethal Autonomous Weapons (LAWS). No global consensus exists under the UN’s CCW framework. Example: UN calls LAWS “morally unacceptable”.
Civilian Casualties and AI Errors: AI misidentification may result in wrongful strikes, raising grave concerns about civilian safety. U.S. drone strikes in Iraq and Afghanistan show real-world errors. 2022 Nagorno-Karabakh saw multiple drone misfires. Example: AI error killed civilians in Kabul.
Accountability and Legal Ambiguity: No clear legal frameworks exist on liability when autonomous weapons commit war crimes. Command responsibility blurs as machines act independently. India’s AWS operations lack domestic legislative backing. Example: No law governs AWS accountability yet.
Cybersecurity and Tech Vulnerability: AWS systems are highly vulnerable to hacking, spoofing, and electronic warfare. CERT-IN flagged 30+ drone vulnerabilities in 2024. Compromised AWS may be turned against original operators. Example: CERT-IN flagged major drone flaws.
Arms Race and Regional Instability: Unregulated AWS development by major powers may trigger an arms race. China’s rapid advances in swarm drones and hypersonic systems concern India. Asia risks destabilization without arms control regimes. Example: China tests AI swarm drone fleets.
Dependence on Foreign Technology: India relies heavily on Israeli and U.S. ISR components, risking strategic vulnerabilities. This compromises autonomy in deployment and maintenance of AWS. Aatmanirbhar push is slowed by tech import needs. Example: Israeli Heron drones dominate ISR ops.
Job Loss and Skill Gaps: Widespread automation may reduce roles for traditional personnel in defence sectors. At the same time, India faces shortages in AI-skilled military technicians. AWS may deepen socio-economic disruption in armed forces. Example: AI replacing conventional infantry scouts.
Terrorism, Privacy & Environmental Risks: Terror groups like ISIS and Houthis use commercial drones for attacks. Over-surveillance risks civil liberties, while drone debris impacts ecosystems. Lithium battery pollution from drone crashes is rising. Example: 2021 Jammu drone attack on base.

Ethical Concerns associated with Autonomous Weapon Systems

Ethical Concern	Example	International Law/Norms Involved
1. Lack of Human Accountability	A misidentification by an autonomous drone leads to civilian casualties (e.g., 2021 Kabul strike).	Geneva Convention –Require accountability for unlawful killings.
2. Violation of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)	An AWS targets a group with weapons, ignoring nearby civilians.	Principles of Distinction and Proportionality under IHL.
3. Algorithmic Bias and Discrimination	Facial recognition in AWS misidentifies targets from minority groups, leading to wrongful deaths.	ICCPR (Art. 6 & 26) – Right to life and protection against discrimination.
4. Erosion of Human Dignity	An autonomous sentry gun kills a surrendering soldier without human judgment (e.g., Samsung SGR-A1).	Martens Clause – Demands respect for humanity and public conscience.
5. Risk of Autonomous Escalation	Border drones retaliate automatically in a skirmish, risking uncontrollable escalation.	UN Charter, Art. 2(4) – Prohibits use of force without state-level oversight.
6. Proliferation to Non-State Actors	Terrorist groups (e.g., ISIS) modify commercial drones for autonomous attacks.	Arms Trade Treaty – Seeks to regulate proliferation and misuse of weapons.

Principle of Distinction: Parties to a conflict must distinguish between combatants and civilians, targeting only legitimate military objectives.

Principle of Proportionality: Attacks must not cause civilian harm excessive in relation to the anticipated military advantage.

The Martens Clause asserts that even when specific laws do not exist, civilians and combatants remain protected under the principles of humanity and the dictates of public conscience. (Introduced in the 1899 Hague Convention.)

Way Forward

Legal & Ethical Framework

Enact a dedicated Autonomous Weapons Regulation Act aligned with IHL and UN GGE norms.
Mandate human-in-the-loop oversight in lethal decisions.
Set up an AI Ethics Council for Defence under NITI Aayog.
Example: UN GGE recommends human control norms.

Indigenous R&D and Innovation

Strengthen DRDO, BEL, and startup linkages via iDEX and Defence Innovation Organisation.
Allocate a dedicated AWS innovation fund in Budget 2024–25.
Partner with IITs and IISc for AI-AWS synergy.
Example: iDEX supports 80+ defence tech startups.

Cybersecurity and Resilience

Fortify CERT-IN and set up an Integrated Cyber Defence Command.
Enforce regular vulnerability audits, red teaming, and mandate AI traceability.
Example: CERT-IN flagged 30 drone vulnerabilities.

Doctrine and Skill Development

Introduce AWS modules in NDA, IMA, and War Colleges.
Launch AI & robotics courses via Skill India and Defence University.
Example: Army AI Centre launched in 2023.

Global Norm Setting and Diplomacy

Lead global AWS discourse at UN, G-20, QUAD, I2U2, BIMSTEC.
Promote non-proliferation and responsible innovation.
Example: India led G-20 AI ethics agenda.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

Expand Defence Corridors in UP and TN for dual-use AWS tech.
Support PPPs via TDF and DRDO Young Scientist Labs.
Enable civil-military transfers for agriculture, logistics, disaster relief.
Example: Drone startups grew 34% in 2023.

#BACK2BASICS: About Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS)

AWS refer to weapon systems that can select and engage targets with minimal or no human intervention. According to the UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), more than 30 countries are currently developing AWS. These systems span a broad range of technologies and capabilities. These are often classified into:

Remotely Operated Systems (e.g., Predator and Heron drones)
Semi-Autonomous Systems (e.g., Fire-and-forget missiles like India’s BrahMos)
Fully Autonomous Systems (e.g., Loitering munitions with AI decision-making capabilities)

Types:

Drones (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles – UAVs): From surveillance drones like India’s Nishant to combat drones like the U.S. MQ-9 Reaper, drones serve diverse military roles. Loitering munitions like the Israeli Harop and Indian ALFA-S, armed drones such as Bayraktar TB2, Predator are redefining precision strikes.
Swarm Drones: Employed in Ukraine’s “Operation Spider Web” — low-cost quadcopters coordinated via AI to infiltrate deep into Russian territory.
Autonomous Ground Vehicles (AGS): Robotic systems designed for reconnaissance, logistics, or combat roles on land.
Missiles: Modern ballistic and cruise missiles, such as the BrahMos and Agni-V, integrate AI-driven guidance and satellite navigation systems.
Autonomous Missile Systems: Missiles equipped with AI for target selection and engagement without human input.
Robotics: Ground robots like Russia’s Uran-9 or the U.S. MAARS (Modular Advanced Armed Robotic System) support infantry and reconnaissance.
Autonomous Naval Systems: India’s autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) developed by DRDO, and global counterparts like the U.S. Sea Hunter, are transforming naval reconnaissance.
AI and Digital Command & Control: Integrated AI-based battle networks like India’s IACCS, US’s Project Maven.

Levels of Autonomy Associated with These Systems:

Human-in-the-Loop: Systems that require human input for decision-making.
Human-on-the-Loop: Systems that can operate autonomously but are supervised by humans who can intervene.
Human-out-of-the-Loop: These are lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) fully autonomous systems that operate without human oversight.

About Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS)

Definition: LAWS are military systems capable of selecting and engaging targets without human intervention — hence also called “killer robots.”
Deployment: They can operate in air, land, sea, underwater, or space.
Functionality: Pre-programmed to identify a specific “target profile” (e.g., using facial recognition or heat signatures) and eliminate it autonomously.
Concerns: Raise ethical, legal, and humanitarian issues — including accountability, civilian safety, and risk of misuse.

UN’s Stand on Autonomous Weapons

UN General Assembly Resolution:
- 164 countries voted in favor
- 5 voted against
- 8 abstained
Key Feature: Called for a report by the UN Secretary-General, incorporating views from governments and civil society.
Purpose: To initiate global governance frameworks addressing risks from autonomous weapons.
Voting by Major Powers:

United States: Voted in favor
China: Abstained
India: Voted against

What Are Countries Doing in This Field?

United States:

Deployment: Actively uses unmanned naval ships and advanced drone systems.
Expansion: Plans to scale up uncrewed fleets across Navy, Army, and Air Force.
AI Integration: Institutions established to ensure human control remains central to AWS usage.

China:

Military Strategy: Focused on building an “intelligentized” PLA.
Applications: AI used in logistics, surveillance, maintenance, and combat.
Strength: High industrial capacity and centralized coordination allow rapid development and deployment.

India:

Approach: Pragmatic and cautious; voted against UNGA resolution but acknowledges AWS relevance.
Strategic Priority: AI seen as essential for balancing military asymmetry with China.
Current Status: India has AI strengths but lags behind the US and China in military applications.

SMASH MAINS MOCK DROP

Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) are transforming the nature of modern warfare but raise serious ethical, legal, and strategic concerns. In this context, critically examine India’s approach to LAWS in comparison with global trends.

N4S