16th Sept 2021

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Vedas

• It is written in highly stylized poetic style and the language is full of symbols and myths.
• The Vedas were initially handed down orally by generations of Brahmin families but it is estimated by historians that they were compiled around 1500 BC-1000 BC.
• In the Hindu tradition, they are considered sacred because they are the divine revelations, which were determined by gods to guide humans eternally.
• They also have larger implications on our lives as they treat the universe and its inhabitants as one big family and preach Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
• There are four major Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. These were mostly written by vedic seers and poets called the rishis who envisioned the cosmic mysteries and wrote them in the form of Sanskrit poetry.
• All the Vedas give prominence to yagna (sacrifice). The Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas accompany each Veda.

Brahmanas

• The Brahmanas are part of the Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature. Each Veda has a Brahmana attached to it, which is essentially a collection of texts with commentaries on the particular Veda.
• They are usually a mixture of legends, facts, philosophy and detailed explanations of Vedic rituals.
• They also consist of instructions as to how to properly conduct rituals and enunciate the science of sacrifice.
• They also explain the symbolic significance of the sacred words used in the rituals.
• Each Veda has its accompanying Brahmana.

Arayankas

• The Arayankas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas from various perspectives.
• They are said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the birth and death cycles as well as the complexity of the soul.
• It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.

Upanishads

• We have more than 200 known Upanishads and the teacher usually passed them down verbally to his students in the forest while they sat in front of him.
• This tradition was part of the guru-shishya parampara.
• These are treatises written in Sanskrit and give an account of the Vedas in predominantly monastic and mystical terms.
• As they are generally the last part of the Vedas, they are also known as Vedanta or ‘end (anta) of the Veda’.
• The Upanishads are said to have the ‘truth’ about human life and show the way towards human salvation or moksha.
• Out of the above-mentioned 200 Upanishads, a set of 108 Upanishads has been called the Muktika Canon.

Sanskrit Drama

Other Major Sanskrit texts

Literature in Pali and Prakrit

• It is said that Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermons and it is in the same language that they have been recorded. The Buddhist literature can be divided into Canonical and Noncanonical works.
• The Canonical literature consists of ‘Triptikas’ or baskets (of knowledge).
• The three Tripitakas are: Vinaya Pitaka, which covers the rules and regulations, which should be followed by the Buddhist monks. The Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and speeches of the Buddha that deal with morality and righteous dharma. Lastly, the Abhidhamma Pitaka that concentrates on the philosophy and metaphysics.
• It also contains discussions on various topics like ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology.
• The Jatakas are the best example of Buddhist non-canonical literature. These are compilation of the stories from the previous births of Buddha.
• The stories of the Bodhisattva or the (future) would-be Buddha are also discussed in these Jatakas. Although these stories propagate Buddhist religious doctrines, they are available in Sanskrit and Pali. Each story of the birth of the Buddha is equivalent to a Jataka tale.
• It was believed that Buddha passed through 550 births before he was born as Gautama. These tales combine the popular tales, ancient mythology as well as sociopolitical conditions in North India between 600 BC and 200 BC.
• The great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.) is another example of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit. Another major religion, Jainism, produced texts in Prakrit.
• They form the basis of the Jain canonical literature. Some of the Jain texts were also written in Sanskrit like the Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).
• The most important Jain texts written in Prakrit are the Angas, the Upangas and the Parikramas. Apart from these the Chhedab Sutra and the Malasutra are also considered to be sacred by the Jains.
• Amongst the secular writers attached to the Jains were Hemachandra who wrote a treatise on lexicography and grammar. Mention could also be made of Haribhadra Suri who wrote in the eighth century.
• These treatises help us to expound on the sociopolitical history of areas densely populated by the Jaina community, which mostly comprised of traders.
• Lastly, Prakrit poetry has some elements of erotica through texts like the Gathasaptashati (700 verses) by Hala written in 300 A.D.
• While Hala has only contributed 44 verses in this volume, what sets this apart is a large number of female poetesses who have contributed to this work.
• The most prominent amongst them are Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, Mahavi and Reva.

Other Buddhist literary texts

• Dipavamsa: It was probably written in 3rd-4th centuries BCE in Anuradhapur (Sri Lanka), during the reign of King Dhatusena. It literally means “Chronicle of the Island”. It mentions about the visit of Buddha to Sri Lanka and the relics of Buddha.
• Milinda Panha: It contains a dialogue between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It means “Questions of Milinda”. These are one of the highest philosophical enquiries.
• Mahavamsa: It is an epic poem written in Pali language. It dates back to 3rd-4th centuries BCE during the reign of King Vijaya. It is a historical account of various kingdoms of South Asia.
• Mahavastu: It contains Jakata and Avadana tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It is said to compiled between 2nd century BC-4th century AD.
• Lalitavistara Sutra: meaning “The play in full”, it is an important Mahayana text. It contains various stories associated with the life of Buddha till his first sermon at Sarnath.
• Udana: It is one of the oldest Theravada (Old School) Buddhist text. It contains the famous story of “Blind Men and the Elephant”.
• Bodhi Vamsa: It was prose-poem, written in century 10th century in Sri Lanka. It was translated from a Sinhalese version. It was written by Upatissa and is written in Pali. Udanavarga: It is a compilation which contains utterances of Buddha and his disciples. It is written in Sanskrit.
• Mahavibhasa Shastra: It is said to be written around 150CE. It contains discussions about other non-Buddhist philosophies also. It is essentially a Mahayan text.
• Abhidharmamoksha: It is written by Vasubandhu and is a widely respected text. It is written in Sanskrit. It contains discussion on Abhidharma.
• Visuddhimagga: It is written by Buddhagosha in 5th century. It is a text of Theravada doctrine. It contains discussions on various teachings of Buddha.

Jain Literature

• Apart from writing in Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi, Jain monks wrote in many other languages depending on the era, region and the patrons who supported them.
• They wrote in Tamil during the Sangam Age in south India.
• They also wrote in Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi.
• They can be broadly divided into two major categories; Canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas or Agam and non-canonical literary works.

Jain Agamas

• They are the sacred texts and are said to be the teachings of the Jain tirthankars. They are said to be originally compiled by the Gandharas who were immediate disciples of Mahavira.
• These texts are important for Svetambaras. The present Angas are said to re-compiled in a council of monks of Svetambaras sect held in Vallabhi (Gujarat) during mid-5th century AD.
• The Digamabara sect believes that original teachings were lost long ago and they do not accept the authority of Agamas compiled in Valabhi. Agamas comprised of 46 texts.
• They are 12 Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Prakirnakas, 4 Mulasutras, 6 Chedasutras, 2 Chulika Sutra. They were written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit language.
• The Angas teach reverence for all forms of life, strict codes of vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion and non-violence.
• The 12 Angas are:

1. Acharanga Sutra: Oldest agama.
2. Sutrakritanga: describes code of conduct for Jain monks, metaphysics etc
3. Sthananga Sutra.
4. Samavayanga Sutra: discussion on essence of Jainism, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
5. Vyakhyaprajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra
6. Jnatrdharma Katha.
7. Upasakadasa
8. Antakrddaasah
9. Anuttaraupapatikadasah.
10. Prasnavyakaranani: Description of sins.
11. Vipakasruta: stories and illustrations.
12. Drstivada: contained 14 Purvas

• Digambaras gave sacred status to two works: the Karmaprabhrita (discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita.
• Some other important Jain works and authors are:
• Bhadrabahu (3rd century BC) is one of the greatest Jain monks and was the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote the sacred Uvasaggaharam Stotra, Kalpa Sutra (Biographies of Jain Tirthankars). He was the pioneer of the Digambara sect.
• Acharya Kundkund’s Samayasara and Niyamasara discusses the Jain philosophy.
• Samanta Bhadra’s Ratna Karanda Sravakachara (Life of a Jaina householder) and Aptamimansa was written around 2nd century AD.
• Ilango Adigal’s Silappadikaram considered one of the greatest epics of Tamil literature written in 2nd century AD, is a moralistic discourse. It revolves around Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom.
• Tirutakkatevar’s Civaka Cintamani is also one of the epics of Tamil literature.
• Nalatiyar, an ancient Tamil text was written by Jain monks.
• Umasvati’s Tattvartha-sutra (1st -2nd century AD) is an important jain work in Sanskrit on logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy.
• Jinasena (8th-9th centuries) was a revered Digamabara monk. He wrote Mahapurana and Harivamshapurana. He was the disciple of another famous Jain monk Virasena.
• Haribhadra Suri (6th century AD) a Jain author wrote in Sanskrit.
• Hemachandra Suri (12th century), a famous scholar wrote grammars of Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Tamil (Sangam) Literature

• ‘Sangam’ means fraternity and this literature was very popular amongst the masses.
• This literature is a collection of works that contains approximately 2381 poems that have been attributed to 473 poets and there is a corpus of literature written by 102 poets that remains anonymous.
• The poets included men and women from different classes of society. The literary tradtion was so popular that the period between 300 BC and 300 AD, during which most of these were composed and compiled, is often called Sangam period.
• There are two major schools of Sangam literature: aham/agam which is the ‘inner field’ and concentrates on the abstract discussion of human aspects like love, sexual relations, etc.
• The second school is the ‘puram’ or the ‘outer field’ which discusses the human experiences like social life, ethics, valour, customs, etc.
• This literature bears the name ‘Sangam’ because the kingdom of Pandya organised assemblies where poets, bards and writers would flock from various parts of South India.
• These assemblies were called ‘Sangamas’ and the literature produced in the duration of these assemblies was called Sangam literature.
• There were three Sangams organized over a period of 600-700 years. However, the conclusive historical account of the first two Sangams are not available.
• The first and second Sangams are considered legends and myths by many scholars. There were three major Sangams organized:

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Context

• E-Governance became an inevitable evolution in successful governance in the modem era.
• As a coordinator and service provider, the Governments are required to embrace Information and Communication Technology to meet the demands of their citizens.
• ‘Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and transparent’ (SMART) Governance became the order of the day to build effective and efficient governance.
• India being the largest democracy in the world, started adopting e-governance in the 1970s and adopted the change quickly, and progressed towards good governance policy at a rapid speed.

E-Governance

• The e-Governance aims to make the interaction between government and citizens (G2C), government and business enterprises (G2B), and inter-agency relationships (G2G) convenient, transparent, friendly, effective, and cost-effective.

Four phases of e-governance

A/c to Gartner E-Governance Maturity Model, there are four phases:

• Phase I- Information
• Phase II- Interaction
• Phase III-Transaction
• Phase IV-Transformation

• To overcome the challenges such as inter-operability, infrastructural challenges, digital divide and Covid-19 pandemic, etc., India is taking new initiatives to develop the overall effectiveness of service delivery mechanism from a citizen’s perspective and trying to bridge the gap between urban and rural e-governance structures.
• The Government of India introduced the National e-Governance Services Delivery Assessment (NeSDA) framework in August 2019 to assess the effectiveness of the e-Governance initiatives of the different government departments from the central to the local level.
• The Online Service Index (OSI) of NeSDA is based on the UNDESA e-Governance survey to develop the e-Governance structure of India at an international standard.

National e-Governance Plan (NeGP)

VISION: “Make all Government services accessible to the common man in his locality, through common service delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency& reliability of such services at affordable costs to realize the basic needs of the common man “.

The following strategy, approach& methodology is adopted for successful implementation of the NeGP:

• Common Support Infrastructures such as SWANs, SDCs, CSCs and Electronic Service Delivery Gateways.
• Suitable governance systems development to monitor and coordinate the implementation of NeGP
• Centralized Initiative, Decentralized Implementation
• Public-Private Partnership
• Integrative elements
• Programme approach at the National and State levels
• Facilitator role of’ DIT III implementation of NeGP by various Ministries and State Governments by providing technical assistance
• Ownership of Ministries over Mission Mode Projects (MMPs)

Various initiatives

Digital India Initiative

• The Digital India Initiative was launched in the year 2015 to bridge the gap between urban and rural areas by promoting investment in digital infrastructure, fostering digital literacy, and expanding online services provision.
• The vision of the Digital India programme is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy by focusing on the following key vision areas:

• Digital infrastructure as a core utility to every citizen.
• Governance & Services On demand
• Digital empowerment of citizens

National e-Governance Services Delivery Assessment (NeSDA)

• NeSDA was launched to promote the participation of various departments and ministries at State and Central level to adopt the e-Government framework in day-to-day functioning.
• To encourage e-participation of citizens and businesses in policymaking and to help India in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• To provide efficient public service delivery to all levels of population in the country by reducing the digital divide.
• To develop innovative and improved public service delivery by developing ICT infrastructure capacity building and to develop a simple single-entry point for all e-services at every level of governance i.e., from central to local self-governance.
• The parameters of assessing under NeSDA are accessibility, ease of use, ‘end service delivery, integrated service delivery, content availability, information security & privacy, and status and request tracking.

E-Governance & Covid-19 Pandemic

• During the current pandemic, e-governance stepped into the central role as a necessary element of communication, leadership, and coordination between policymakers, administration, and society.
• Digital technologies established through e-governance initiatives became an important source for sharing knowledge, encouraging collaborative research, and providing transparent guidance to the citizens.
• E-governance became an important ICT tool for disseminating Covid-19 related data in a more transparent, safe, interoperable, and secure manner.
• The online database of Covid-19 cases, lockdown guidelines, travel restrictions, locating the vacant beds in the hospitals, oxygen cylinders, financial assistance and relief distribution, etc., were carried out only through e-governance infrastructure.
• Jan Dhan Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) delivery system became the main vehicle for the distribution of the cash payments, rations of food supplies through the public distribution system, the distribution of the reliefpackage under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan (PMGK) scheme supported thepeople in the pandemic.
• AarogyaSetu App and Co-WIN App are the main e-governancetools that supported the citizens andgovernment to trace the Covid patientsand manage the vaccination.
• E-Doctor tele-video consultation facilities have been launched as an alternativeto reduce hospital visits.

Challenges and Way Forward

• The scope of the e-governance projects expanded at an unexpected speed during Covid-19, by adding many new features and innovativee-infrastructure.
• The population of India now connected with e-governance can be considered as one of the largestdatabases in the world having personal information of people.
• The important challenge ahead of the sudden surgeof the ambit of e-governance in the post-Covid scenario is assuring a secure, effective, reliable, transparent system that is reconciled with the basic rights and values guaranteed in the Constitution of India.
• Another challenge in e-germane is to adopt new methods to decrease the digital divide and to promote inclusive e-governance for achieving the promise, ‘to leave nobody behind’.

In the post-Covid scenario, the government is required to develop effective e-governance through:

• Interoperability of e-governance
• Infrastructure between intergovernmental departments and agencies
• Developing inclusive e-governance structure to make sure that there is no one is left out
• Legislating effective data protection
• Law and administrative regulations
• Enhancing data security levels to avoid data leakage, misuse, etc.
• Reducing digital divide by creating an inclusive digital ecosystem, e-literacy for inclusiveness, improving accessibility for higher uptake
• Mandatory sector-specific service focus to attain SDO goals
• Embracing New Age Technologies (NAT) for improved service delivery and focusing on integrated service delivery

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on International Relations – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements:

1. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty that bans all nuclear tests, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments.

2. India has signed but not ratified the treaty.

Select correct option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q2) Consider the following statements:

1. Fatf maintains a list of countries which are low tax jurisdictions or tax shelters.

2. Membership to Fatf and oecd are almost similar.

Select incorrect option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q3) Consider the following statements:

1. ICJ is the only international court that adjudicates general disputes between countries, with its rulings and opinions serving as primary sources of international law.

2. ICC is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.

Select incorrect option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q4) Which of the following is not correctly matched?

a) Strait of Hormuz: Oman and Iran

b) Bab – el-Mandeb: Arabian sea and red sea

c) Strait of Magellan : Pacific and atlantic ocean

d) Dardanelles Strait connecting the Black sea and Aegean Sea

Q5) Consider the following statements on Mekong ganga cooperation:

1. The Mekong river runs through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

2. Mekong ganga cooperation was formed in 2010.

3. Members include India, China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Select correct statements:

a) 1 only

b) 1 and 2

c) 1 and 3

d) All

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IMD had predicted normal monsoon for 2021. However, initial estimates show that some states may not get enough rain.

In this article, we shall learn how this will impact economic growth, especially when other sectors are still reeling under Covid-19 impact.

What is Monsoon?

• Monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation.
• It is now being used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone between its limits to the north and south of the equator.
• Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase.
• The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.

What defines a Normal Monsoon?

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) calls a monsoon season:

• ‘Normal’ when the total amount of rainfall in the country between June and September is within 10 per cent (plus or minus) of the average rain over a long period.
• ‘Deficit rainfall’ is when it drops below the margin of 10 per cent of the average.
• ‘Excess rainfall’ is when it exceeds the average by more than 10 per cent.

What is the LPA method?

• The IMD uses long period average (LPA) method to forecast the monsoon.
• LPA represents the average annual rainfall received by India during the southwest monsoon over the five decades from 1961 to 2010.

Why is it so important to have Normal Monsoon?

A good monsoon usually brings renewal and recovery, especially when times are grim. The right amount of rainfall brings the promise of a bumper harvest, boosting rural incomes and demand, driving an essential economic cycle.

(1) Crop success

• The monsoon is critical for agriculture in the country since nearly 60% of India’s net arable land lacks irrigation.
• The monsoon delivers about 70% of India’s annual rainfall and determines the yield of several grains and pulses, including rice, wheat, and sugarcane.
• India is the world’s biggest producer of sugar, cotton and pulses, and the second-biggest producer of wheat and rice. 

(2) Food inflation

• More importantly, higher agriculture yield would mean lower pressure on food prices and the overall retail inflation.
• A normal south-west monsoon should help to contain food price pressures, especially in cereals and pulses.
• It is also crucial to keep up the rural demand.

(3) Drinking water

• The rains also replenish nearly 100 large reservoirs critical for drinking water and power generation across the country.
• In the event of deficient rains, cities such as Chennai, Mumbai, and Hyderabad will be forced to cut water supplies.

(4) Demand spur in the economy

• Most major sectors of the economy like to base their sales and distribution activities on the monsoon’s behavior.
• For example, if the monsoon fails, lower production of foodgrain would mean lower demand for diesel to transport goods.
• A company involved in sales and distribution of automotive fuels would like to cut down production before the demand plummets.
• From share markets and betting houses to the collections at temples and sales of vegetables, the monsoon affects everything.

(5) Hydro Energy

• A normal monsoon will also lead to reservoirs across India, which are responsible for water supply in cities, filling up.
• Thus it  will also lead to an increase in production of hydro power which is a cleaner form of energy.

Importance of Monsoon for the Agriculture

• When the first wave of Covid-19 cases ravaged the economy in 2020, it was the agriculture sector, powered by an above-average monsoon, that saved the economy and millions who depend on agriculture, both directly and indirectly.
• Nearly half of India’s farmland has no irrigation and is dependent on monsoon rains, which account for 70-90 per cent of annual rainfall.
• Farming accounts for almost 15 per cent of India’s GDP and employs nearly 42.6 per cent of the workforce.
• While the share of Indians employed in the sector is declining, it remains a critical sector.

Public sentiments associated

• Normal monsoon will also improve the sentiment in rural India which has witnessed many coronavirus cases and deaths.
• It will lead to an increase in income of farmers and provide a boost to rural demand which has been facing pressure in the second wave.

Significance for post COVID recovery

• A normal monsoon would ensure that inflation remains in the band of 4%-6% as targeted by the Reserve Bank of India.
• Low inflation will help the Reserve Bank of India to continue with its stance of keeping interest rates low. Generally, central banks resort to an increase in interest rates to tackle high inflation.
• Low rate scenario is required at a time when Indian economy is battling from the economic fallout of the pandemic.

Issues in Monsoon Prediction

• One may complain about the “unreliability and uncertainty of rainfall prediction in India.
• In recent times, the unpredictability of monsoons has increased significantly with the impact of global warming that has resulted in climate change all over the world.
• For climate scientists, determining the location, extent, and intensity of the ITCZ is the biggest challenge and in recent times it has become more difficult due to climate change and other factors like El Nino, a global climate cycle that disrupts the path of trade winds.