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  • Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    Why in the News?

    Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.

    Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?

    • Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
    • Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
    • Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
    • Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
    • Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
    • Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.

    Geopolitical Significance:

    • Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
    • Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.

    Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”

    Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

    Why in the News?

    Indore, already recognized as the cleanest city in India, has topped the list of million-plus population cities in the Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2025.

    Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

    About Swachh Vayu Survekshan (SVS), 2025:

    • Overview: Annual survey by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
    • Objective: Promotes healthy competition among cities and accelerates implementation of air quality measures.
    • Coverage: Includes 130 cities, grouped into 3 categories: million-plus population, 3–10 lakh population, and under 3 lakh population.
    • Parameters: Cities assessed on 8 factors such as road dust mitigation, solid waste management, vehicular emission control, industrial emission control, construction and demolition waste handling, public awareness, and particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5) reduction.
    • Methodology: Uses a multi-tier evaluation focusing on both on-ground actions and measurable outcomes.

    Key Findings of SVS, 2025:

    • Top Performer: Indore ranked 1st among million-plus cities, regaining its position after slipping to 6th in 2024. It had also topped in 2023, while Lucknow topped the inaugural edition in 2022.
    • Other Million-Plus Rankings: Jabalpur 2nd, Agra and Surat 3rd, Navi Mumbai 4th, Kanpur 5th, Bhopal 6th, Allahabad 7th, Chandigarh 8th, Ahmedabad–Pune–Nagpur 10th, Varanasi and Raipur 11th, Lucknow 15th, Hyderabad 22nd, Mumbai 25th, Jaipur 26th, Delhi 32nd, Bengaluru 36th, Kolkata 38th, Chennai 41st.
    • 3–10 Lakh Cities: Amravati 1st, Jhansi and Moradabad joint 2nd, Alwar 3rd.
    • Under-3 Lakh Cities: Dewas 1st, Parwanoo 2nd, Angul 3rd.
    • Air Quality Data: Indore recorded PM10 at 83 μg/m³ in 2024–25, slightly higher than 82 μg/m³ in 2017–18. Cities like Chennai (58 μg/m³), Varanasi (59 μg/m³), Bengaluru (68 μg/m³), and Hyderabad (81 μg/m³) showed lower PM10 levels than Indore.
    • Overall Trends: 103 of 130 cities reduced PM10 since 2017–18. 64 cities achieved a 20% reduction, while 25 cities achieved a 40% reduction. Only 22 cities met the national standard of ≤60 μg/m³, with Chennai the only metro (58 μg/m³). Among metros, Mumbai recorded the highest decline (44%), followed by Kolkata (37%), Hyderabad (26%), Bengaluru (26%), Delhi (15%), and Chennai (12%).
    [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

    1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3.

    2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

    3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream.

    4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

     

  • Decisive step (Including Aadhar as 12th document for voter verification)

    Introduction

    The right to vote is one of the most fundamental expressions of citizenship in a democracy. However, procedural rigidity in electoral roll revisions often results in the exclusion of genuine electors. Recently, the Supreme Court intervened decisively in Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, directing the inclusion of Aadhaar as one of the 12 valid documents for voter verification. With over 65 lakh voters already struck off from Bihar’s draft rolls, this judgment is a crucial corrective step ensuring that the processes of democracy do not become instruments of exclusion.

    Significance of the Supreme Court’s Decision

    1. Judicial clarity: The Supreme Court dismantled the ECI’s argument that Aadhaar is proof of residency, not citizenship, by highlighting that most other accepted documents (e.g., ration card, driving license) also do not conclusively establish citizenship.
    2. Preventing mass exclusion: With nearly 90% of Bihar’s population holding Aadhaar versus only 2% holding passports, excluding Aadhaar would have disenfranchised a vast number of eligible voters, especially the poor and marginalised.
    3. Correcting anomalies: The Hindu’s statistical analysis of the exclusion revealed disproportionate impacts and that women were removed in large numbers, death rates appeared statistically improbable, and questionable “permanent shifts” particularly affected migrants and married women.

    Implications of the Judgment for Voter Inclusivity

    1. Lifeline for excluded electors: Over 65 lakh voters struck off the draft rolls now have a viable route back through Aadhaar verification.
    2. Support for existing electors: Even those already on the rolls needing document verification benefit from Aadhaar’s inclusion.
    3. Validation of civil society concerns: The Court’s order vindicates activists and political groups who warned that excluding Aadhaar contradicted earlier judicial guidance and created practical hurdles.

    Challenges Exposed in the Election Commission’s Process

    1. Questionable reasoning: The ECI insisted Aadhaar was inadmissible, despite its wide acceptance in governance systems.
    2. Haste over accuracy: The rushed SIR process compromised diligence, undermining the credibility of voter rolls.
    3. Patterns of exclusion: Disproportionate impact on marginalised groups like migrant workers and married women reveals systemic flaws.

    National Precedent Established by the Ruling

    1. Uniform standards: This ruling is not limited to Bihar but extends to future electoral revisions across India.
    2. Balance between accuracy and inclusivity: It forces the ECI to reorient its approach towards humane, diligent verification.
    3. Strengthening democracy: Electoral rolls form the foundation of free and fair elections; inclusivity ensures democratic legitimacy.

    Future Expectations from the Election Commission of India

    1. House-to-house verification: A more thorough, grassroots-level approach to ensure accuracy.
    2. Inclusive procedures: Processes must prevent the disenfranchisement of genuine voters, especially the vulnerable.
    3. Aligning with practical realities: Aadhaar, as the most widely held identity document, should be part of India’s democratic processes.

    Way Forward

    • Strengthening Verification Mechanisms
      1. Conduct comprehensive house-to-house verification to avoid wrongful deletions.
      2. Use technology-enabled checks (biometric authentication with Aadhaar, but with strong safeguards for privacy).
    • Ensuring Inclusivity
      1. Simplify documentation requirements for vulnerable groups (migrants, women, senior citizens).
      2. Provide doorstep assistance for voter registration in rural and marginalised areas.
    • Institutional Strengthening of ECI
      1. Enhance independence, transparency, and accountability of the Election Commission.
      2. Establish an independent audit mechanism to regularly review voter roll revisions.
    • Legal and Policy Reforms
      1. Consider amendments to the Representation of People Act to clarify permissible use of Aadhaar and protect against misuse.
      2. Align electoral processes with Supreme Court jurisprudence on Aadhaar to balance convenience with rights.
    • Public Awareness and Participation
      1. Encourage civil society participation in monitoring electoral rolls.
      2. Launch mass awareness campaigns to educate voters on their rights and available documentation.
    • Long-Term Electoral Reform Agenda
      1. Explore remote voting mechanisms for migrant workers.
      2. Move towards integrated digital electoral rolls across states for consistency.
      3. Institutionalise regular, transparent consultations between ECI, political parties, and judiciary.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s directive to include Aadhaar in voter verification is more than a legal clarification; it is a democratic safeguard. By preventing procedural exclusion and ensuring accessibility, the judgment reaffirms India’s commitment to universal suffrage. For the ECI, the challenge now lies in balancing diligence with inclusivity, creating an electoral roll that truly reflects India’s diverse citizenry.

    Value Addition

    Constitutional & Legal Dimensions:

    • Article 326: Guarantees universal adult suffrage, forming the foundation of electoral democracy.
    • Article 14 & 21: Ensure equality and due process — mass exclusion from voter rolls would violate these.
    • Representation of People Act, 1951: Governs electoral rolls, voter eligibility, and disqualification.

    Case Laws:

    1. PUCL v. Union of India (2003) – Recognised “right to know” of voters.
    2. Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006) – Stressed on the principle of electoral integrity.
    3. Supreme Court Aadhaar Judgments (2018) – Aadhaar can be used for welfare and verification, but cannot be made mandatory for all purposes.

    Committees & Reports:

    1. Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Highlighted need for free and fair elections as cornerstone of democracy.
    2. Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2008): Stressed inclusivity and transparency in voter registration.
    3. Law Commission of India (255th Report, 2015): Recommended linkage of voter databases with Aadhaar for accuracy, subject to safeguards.

    Democratic Governance & Inclusivity:

    1. Inclusivity vs. Accuracy: Electoral reforms must balance weeding out bogus voters with preventing disenfranchisement of genuine citizens.
    2. Marginalised Communities: Migrants, women, and the poor are disproportionately affected by procedural rigidity — their access must be prioritised.

    Comparative Insight:

    1. USA: Struggles with strict voter ID laws that disproportionately affect minorities.
    2. Canada: Allows multiple identification options to avoid disenfranchisement.
    3. India’s Aadhaar: A unique digital identity tool with near-universal coverage (~90%), giving India an advantage in inclusive electoral reforms.

    Ethical Perspective (GS 4 angle)

    1. Principle of Justice: Fair opportunity for every citizen to vote.
    2. Procedural Fairness: Electoral rules must not arbitrarily exclude individuals.
    3. Democratic Accountability: ECI must uphold public trust by ensuring inclusivity in its procedures.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?

    Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on including Aadhaar as a valid voter verification document directly relates to the broader debate on electoral reforms. Just as the ECI’s 2016 reform proposals sought to strengthen inclusivity and transparency, this judgment ensures that procedural rigidity does not erode democratic participation. Both highlight the evolving role of the ECI in balancing accuracy, accessibility, and fairness in India’s electoral process.

  • Why is Kathmandu Burning

    Introduction

    On September 8–9, 2025, Nepal plunged into chaos as protests led by Generation Z escalated into violent clashes with security forces. What began as outrage against corruption and a controversial ban on 26 social media platforms quickly spiraled into a mass uprising that engulfed Kathmandu in flames. Former Prime Ministers’ homes were torched, ministers stripped and paraded, and jails broken open. With PM K P Sharma Oli’s resignation and President Ram Chandra Poudel in hiding, the nation faced a constitutional vacuum, raising concerns about the Army’s role and India’s strategic interests. This is the first major political uprising in Nepal led entirely by Gen Z — teenagers and youth born between 1996–2012. Unlike the Maoist insurgency of the past, this revolt was spontaneous, digitally mobilized, and directed against all senior political leaders.

    Generation Z and the Rise of Political Discontent

    1. Generation Z Mobilisation: The uprising was driven by youth anger at corruption, lack of jobs, and entrenched political elites since 2008.
    2. Digital Trigger: Outrage exploded after the government banned 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, X, etc.), cutting off their main channel of solidarity.
    3. Symbolic Rage: Anger was also directed at “Nepo Kids” — the privileged lifestyles of politicians’ children.
    4. Immediate Demands: Reinstatement of social media (achieved), broader demand for accountability and jobs.

    The Escalation of Protests into Violence

    1. State Response: Security forces fired on protesters, killing 19 young people, triggering mass fury.
    2. Attack on Leaders: Houses of five former Prime Ministers were torched (Oli, Prachanda, Madhav Kumar Nepal, Jhala Nath Khanal, Sher Bahadur Deuba).
    3. Fatalities: Rajyalaxmi Chitrakar (wife of ex-PM Khanal) died from burns; former PM Deuba and his wife (Foreign Minister Arzu Deuba) were assaulted.
    4. Dramatic Incidents: Protesters freed Rabi Lamichhane, a jailed critic of Oli, by burning Nakkhu Jail.
    5. Humiliation of Ministers: Finance Minister Bishnu Prasad Paudel and MP Eknath Dhakal were stripped and paraded.

    Leadership Vacuum and Constitutional Crisis

    1. PM’s Resignation: K P Sharma Oli resigned; President Poudel went into hiding.
    2. Army’s Stance: Army Chief Gen. Ashok Raj Sigdel urged calm, took charge of security, but avoided assuming political power.
    3. Possibility of Interim Government: Likely after negotiations with figures like Kathmandu Mayor Balen Shah, a Gen Z icon.
    4. Constitutional Crisis: Possibility of Parliament dissolution and collapse of 2015 Constitution.

    The Expanding Role of the Nepal Army

    1. Security Role: The Army has assumed charge of law and order.
    2. Political Caution: Unlike in past coups, the Army seems hesitant to directly seize political power.
    3. Facilitator Role: Likely to mediate between political leaders, ensure reconciliation, and protect civilian lives.

    Opposition in Disarray Amidst Youth Revolt

    1. Targeted Equally: All senior leaders, across party lines, faced wrath of protesters.
    2. Rising Leaders: Balen Shah (Mayor of Kathmandu, ex-rapper) and Rabi Lamichhane (RSP leader, ex-TV anchor) emerged as youth-backed alternatives.
    3. Monarchy Revival?: Former King Gyanendra Shah offered condolences, appealed for dialogue, subtly signaling a willingness to return to relevance.

    India’s Strategic Concerns Amidst Nepal’s Crisis

    1. Strategic Concern: India is deeply worried, given historical ties, open border, and Nepali diaspora in India.
    2. Delicate Position: India is seen as partisan since it backed Maoists and republicanism in 2008.
    3. Official Statement: PM Narendra Modi chaired the CCS meeting, stressing “stability, peace, and prosperity of Nepal” as vital for India.

    Conclusion

    Nepal’s Gen Z uprising marks the collapse of public trust in traditional politics and signals a generational shift. The combination of digital mobilization, corruption fatigue, and joblessness has produced an explosion that could reshape Nepal’s political order. For India, the crisis is both a challenge and an opportunity, a chance to rebuild goodwill through balanced diplomacy, while avoiding the mistakes of the past. The coming weeks will determine whether Nepal stabilizes through reconciliation or descends into prolonged instability.

    Value Addition

    Similarities between the recent Nepal Gen Z uprising (2025) and the Bangladesh student–youth revolution (July 2024) that toppled Sheikh Hasina’s government

    • Youth at the Centre
      1. Nepal: Led by Gen Z (born 1996–2012), angry at corruption, nepotism, and joblessness.
      2. Bangladesh: Led by students and young professionals, who launched protests against the quota system in government jobs, symbolising a deeper anger at authoritarianism.
      3. Similarity: In both, young people with no political baggage spearheaded the movement, showing a generational rejection of “old guard” politics.
    • Trigger through State Suppression
      1. Nepal: Anger exploded after government banned 26 social media platforms, silencing digital expression. Police firing killed 19 protesters, escalating violence.
      2. Bangladesh: Crackdowns on student protests with police brutality, tear gas, and arrests deepened the rage, leading to street battles.
      3. Similarity: In both cases, excessive state repression transformed peaceful protests into mass uprisings.
    • Anti-Elite and Anti-Nepotism Sentiment
      1. Nepal: Rage directed at “Nepo Kids”, children of politicians flaunting wealth and privilege.
      2. Bangladesh: Rage at the dynastic, 15-year-long rule of Sheikh Hasina, seen as nepotistic and authoritarian.
      3. Similarity: Both were anti-nepotism revolts, targeting corruption and political entrenchment.
    • Use of Digital Platforms for Mobilisation
      1. Nepal: Movement grew around Facebook pages like Next Generation Nepal, until banned.
      2. Bangladesh: Students used Facebook, X, and YouTube to coordinate protests, live-stream crackdowns, and rally global support.
      3. Similarity: Social media was the fuel of mobilisation, and attempts to suppress it only intensified anger.
    • Collapse of Established Order
      1. Nepal: PM K P Sharma Oli resigned, President went into hiding, houses of former PMs burned, Parliament dysfunctional.
      2. Bangladesh: PM Sheikh Hasina fled the country, Awami League leaders attacked, and Parliament dissolved.
      3. Similarity: Both witnessed a sudden collapse of political order, with leadership vacuum and uncertainty about interim arrangements.
    • Regional & International Concerns
      1. Nepal: India held a CCS meeting, worried about instability on its borders; China also watching closely.
      2. Bangladesh: India was concerned due to historic ties with Hasina, while the West pushed for democratic restoration.
      3. Similarity: In both, India was caught in a delicate diplomatic dilemma — balancing neutrality while protecting its strategic interests.

    Conclusion

    Both revolutions represent a South Asian pattern of youth-led, anti-elite uprisings, where corruption, joblessness, authoritarianism, and digital repression pushed Gen Z to revolt. They show that in fragile democracies, youth disillusionment can quickly destabilize entrenched regimes. For India, these crises in its immediate neighbourhood are warnings: political stability next door is fragile, and managing relations requires delicate, balanced diplomacy.

    Value Addition (II)

    • Comparative Lens: Similar to Arab Spring (2011) — youth-led, social media-driven protests.
    • Theory: Youth Bulge Hypothesis — large unemployed youth populations often drive political instability.
    • Reports: UNDP South Asia Human Development Report highlights youth aspirations and governance deficits.
    • Ethics (GS4): Crisis of legitimacy in governance when corruption and inequality erode public trust.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged constitutional logjam in Nepal.

    Linkage: The 2012 question on Nepal’s constitutional logjam highlighted elite disputes over federalism and governance. The 2025 Gen Z uprising reflects how these unresolved issues have now spilled onto the streets, creating a constitutional vacuum. What was once a parliamentary deadlock has transformed into a popular revolt against the entire political class, deepening Nepal’s democratic fragility.

  • [pib] Regulation of Biostimulants in India

    Why in the News?

    India now has a comprehensive regulatory framework for biostimulants, placing it among the few countries with such dedicated oversight.

    What are Biostimulants?

    • Definition: Under Fertilizer Control Order (FCO), 1985, Clause 20C, biostimulants are substances or micro-organisms that stimulate plant processes to improve nutrient uptake, growth, yield, crop quality, efficiency, and stress tolerance.
    • Exclusion: They are not pesticides or plant growth regulators, which fall under the Insecticides Act, 1968.
    • Categories (Schedule VI, FCO): Botanical extracts (including seaweed), protein hydrolysates and amino acids, vitamins, biochemicals, antioxidants, anti-transpirants, humic and fulvic acids, cell-free microbial products, and live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides).

    Regulation Timeline:

    • Before 2021: Nearly 30,000 unregulated products in Indian markets.
    • Feb 2021: Included under FCO; provisional registration system (G3 certificates) introduced; about 8,000 products approved temporarily.
    • Current Status: Only 146 products formally notified in Schedule VI.

    Key Amendments (2021–2025):

    • 2021: Biostimulants legally recognised under FCO.
    • 2023–24: Provisional validity extended to avoid disruption.
    • 2025:
      • Live micro-organisms (excluding biofertilizers/biopesticides) added as a category.
      • Pesticide residue limit raised from 0.01 ppm to 1 ppm.
      • Stricter quality testing, labelling, and safety standards enforced.
      • Provisional system discontinued.

    Significance:

    • Protects farmers from spurious/unproven products.
    • Encourages validated indigenous products under Atmanirbhar Bharat.
    • Establishes quality, safety, and labelling standards through Gazette notifications.
    • Makes India one of the few countries with a dedicated Biostimulant law, balancing farmer welfare, environmental safety, innovation, and regulation.
    [UPSC 2013] Consider the following organisms:

    1.Agaricus 2.Nostoc 3.Spirogyra

    Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/biofertilizers?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only

     

  • [pib] Universal Postal Union (UPU)

    Why in the News?

    At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.

    About Universal Postal Union (UPU):

    • Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
    • Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
    • Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.

    • Membership:

      • 192 member countries (as of 2025).
      • Any UN member state can join automatically.
      • Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
      • India is a member since 1876.

    • Structure:

      • Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
      • Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
      • Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
      • International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.

    • Functions:

      • Coordinates postal policies across nations.
      • Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
      • Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
      • Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.

    Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:

    • For India:

      • Strengthens India’s global leadership in digital payments innovation.
      • Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.

    • For Global Postal System:

      • Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
      • Strengthens India–UPU cooperation and demonstrates India’s ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.

    • For Migrants:

      • Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
      • Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.
    [UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    List I (Agency)

    (A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)

    List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York

    Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1*

     

  • [pib] Exercise ZAPAD 2025

    Why in the News?

    An Indian Armed Forces contingent has departed for Mulino Training Ground, Nizhniy, Russia, to participate in Exercise ZAPAD 2025.

    About Exercise ZAPAD:

    • Meaning: “ZAPAD” means West in Russian; a series of large-scale joint strategic military drills led by Russia and Belarus.
    • Origins: Started during the Soviet era with Zapad-77, Zapad-81, Zapad-84, reflecting Cold War dynamics.
    • Post-Soviet Revival: Resumed with Zapad-99 (1999), partly as a response to NATO’s Yugoslavia operations.
    • Frequency: Held about once every 4 years, with major editions in 2009, 2013, 2017, 2021, and 2025.
    • Series Context: Forms part of Russia’s rotating operational drills along with Vostok (East), Tsentr (Central), and Kavkaz (Caucasus).
    • Scale: Zapad-2021 involved ~200,000 personnel from 17 countries, one of the largest recent drills.

    Geopolitical Significance:

    • Deterrence: Sends a strategic message to NATO about Russian readiness.
    • Allied Assurance: Reassures Russia’s partners and allies of its military strength.
    [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

    Select the answer using the code given below:

     

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

     

  • What was the Harappan Language?

    Why in the News?

    The Union Culture Ministry has invited experts to present their research on deciphering the Indus Valley script, also known as the Harappan script.

    What was the Harappan Language?

    Recent Efforts and Theories on the Harappan Script:

    • Taxation & Commerce Theory: Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay argues the script encodes rules of trade and taxation, not phonetic spellings.
    • Religious Hypothesis: Karuna Shankar Shukla claims Indus seals carried Rig Vedic mantras and Puranic references, used mainly for rituals.
    • Proto-Dravidian Claims:
      • Prakash N. Salame (Nagpur engineer) says 90% of symbols represent Proto-Dravidian Gondi, building on Dr. M. C. Kangali.
      • Asko Parpola (Finnish Indologist) supports the Dravidian hypothesis, suggesting a logo-syllabic system of pictograms and rebuses.
      • Bryan K. Wells also backs Proto-Dravidian links.
    • Santali Link: Prabhunath Hembrom connects the script to the Santali language, citing parallels with Parpola’s work.
    • Scholarly Caveats: H. P. Ray stresses need for bilingual objects, contextual clarity, and warns against assuming a single language for the entire civilization.

    Back2Basics: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

    • Timeline: Flourished 2600–1900 BCE, with roots back to Mehrgarh (7000 BCE).
    • Extent: Covered 1.5 million sq. km across modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan.
    • Discovery: Excavations at Harappa (1921–22, Daya Ram Sahni) and Mohenjo-daro (1922, R. D. Banerji) confirmed as one civilization by John Marshall.
    • Urban Features: Grid-planned cities, fortified towns, granaries, warehouses, dockyards, drainage systems, advanced water management (wells, reservoirs, Great Bath).
    • Seals & Script: Steatite seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script point to complex administration.
    • Crafts & Finds: Pottery, bead-making, weaving, metallurgy, toys, ornaments, figurines; iconic Dancing Girl, Priest-King, Mother Goddess statues.

     

    [UPSC 2001] Which one of the following animals was NOT represented on the seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture?

    Options: (a) Cow* (b) Elephant (c) Rhinoceros (d) Tiger

     

  • Langkhon Festival of Assam

    Why in the News?

    Tiwa tribesmen recently celebrated Langkhun festival in Umsowai village in Karbi Anglong district of Assam.

    Langkhon Festival of Assam

    About Langkhon Festival:

    • Overview: A pre-harvest thanks-giving festival of the Tiwa tribe of Assam.
    • Timing: Celebrated in October–November, just before the Rabi crop season.
    • Core Belief: Involves worship of bamboo, seen as a symbol of prosperity and sustenance in Tiwa culture.
    • Deities: Special prayers to Ramsa Devota and other local gods for crop protection, family welfare, and village prosperity.
    • Ritual Practices: Include offerings, sacrifices, and prayers to drive away pestilence and evil forces and ensure a good paddy harvest.
    • Duration: Celebrated for 2–4 days with active community participation.
    • Traditional Dances: Langkhon dance, Moinari Khanthi, and Yangli form the cultural highlights.
    • Folk Songs: Songs such as Lo Ho La Hai (naming, weddings, harvests) and Lali Hilali Lai (weddings) are integral to the festival.
    • Games & Sports: Local games like Plasele and Sam Kava are organised, strengthening community bonds.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • [9th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Iran and India, ancient civilizations and new horizons

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    Linkage: The article’s emphasis on Iran’s resilience against Western domination, its right to peaceful nuclear energy, and India–Iran civilisational partnership directly connects to the US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy. Sanctions and U.S. pressure affect India’s energy security, INSTC access, and strategic autonomy. Thus, India’s calibrated diplomacy in balancing ties with both Iran and the West becomes central to safeguarding its national interest.

    Mentor’s Comment

    In the midst of global flux, Ambassador Iraj Elahi’s reflections on Iran–India relations remind us that ancient civilisations have the potential to shape modern geopolitics in profound ways. This piece dissects his arguments, from the erosion of Western dominance to the rise of South-South cooperation, and places them in the larger canvas of India’s foreign policy and civilisational outreach. For UPSC aspirants, it offers deep insights into international relations, civilisation studies, and contemporary global order debates.

    Introduction

    The global order is in transition. Once dominated by Western powers, especially the United States, the world now witnesses a shift toward multipolarity. The unchecked use of force, sanctions, and manipulation of global institutions by the West has weakened its legitimacy. In this changing landscape, ancient civilisations such as India and Iran are being called upon to offer not only an alternative but a humane, participatory and just global order. Their shared values of spirituality, peace, and cultural resilience form the foundation of this partnership.

    The Crisis of the Western-led Order

    1. Declining dominance: The West, especially the U.S., is losing control over its classic instruments, global finance, technological monopoly, human rights discourse, and global media.
    2. Crisis indicators: Blatant violations of international law, unchecked use of force, trade wars, and environmental destruction signal deep systemic decay.

    Why the Global South is Rising

    1. Civilisational awakening: Countries are resisting domination and discrimination by relying on local models and indigenous technology.
    2. Strategic autonomy: Defence and security strengthening in Global South nations marks a push against dependence on external powers.
    3. India and Iran as torchbearers: Both ancient civilisations embody resilience — from India’s Non-Aligned Movement to Iran’s Islamic Revolution.

    Civilisational Wisdom and Shared Values

    1. Cultural resilience: Despite military defeats, both India and Iran influenced their conquerors with governance, literature, and art.
    2. Shared ethos: Belief in the triumph of good over evil, respect for diversity, spiritual growth, and commitment to peace.
    3. Historical struggles: India’s anti-colonial resistance and Iran’s oil nationalisation highlight their fight against domination.

    Palestine and the Question of Justice

    1. Central issue: The Palestinian struggle is projected as the frontline battle of the Global South against Western hypocrisy.
    2. Iran’s stance: Defence of Palestine and its right to nuclear energy are framed as defences of sovereignty and law.
    3. Global South solidarity: Palestine becomes a metaphor for resistance against occupation and expansionism.

    India–Iran in Multilateral and Regional Frameworks

    1. BRICS potential: Seen as a counterweight to Western economic dominance, sanctions, and dollar hegemony.
    2. INSTC: More than a trade corridor; envisioned as a civilisational bridge linking Eurasia, Africa, and South Asia, with stabilising effects on West Asia.
    3. Opposition to U.S. role: Iran critiques American interventions in West Asia and South Asia for fuelling instability and terrorism.

    Conclusion

    As the world transitions into multipolarity, the call for civilisational powers such as India and Iran to lead is both symbolic and strategic. Their partnership, rooted in resilience, peace, and spiritual values, has the potential to redefine the Global South’s trajectory. By working through BRICS, INSTC, and other platforms, they can craft a participatory global order, one that replaces domination with dignity, and hierarchy with equality.

    Value Addition

    India-Iran Relations

    Historical & Civilisational Links

    1. Ancient ties: Both are among the world’s oldest civilisations, with exchanges in philosophy, art, architecture, and literature.
    2. Cultural influence: Persian language, miniature painting, Sufi traditions, and Mughal architecture in India reflect deep Iranian impact.
    3. Shared values: Spirituality, diversity, peace, and civilisational resilience.

    Strategic & Economic Cooperation

    1. Energy security:
      • Iran was once India’s second-largest crude oil supplier.
      • Post-U.S. sanctions, imports dropped, but Iran remains vital for India’s energy diversification.
    2. Chabahar Port:
      1. India’s first overseas port project.
      2. Provides access to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
      3. Part of the larger International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
    3. INSTC:
      1. Connects India to Russia and Europe via Iran.
      2. Cuts transport cost by ~30% and time by ~40%.

    Geopolitical & Regional Significance

    1. Balancing act: India walks a fine line between the U.S.–Iran rivalry and its ties with Israel and the Gulf States.
    2. Afghanistan: India and Iran cooperated closely for stability, particularly post-U.S. withdrawal.
    3. West Asia: Iran acts as a counterbalance to Sunni-dominated Gulf powers; India’s diaspora and trade interests lie across the region.

    Multilateral Engagement

    1. BRICS: Iran is a member of BRICS and became a full member along with other countries starting January 1, 2024, following an expansion agreement at the 2023 Johannesburg Summit.
    2. SCO membership: Both nations share platforms for regional security and connectivity.
    3. NAM legacy: Shared anti-colonial and non-aligned credentials.

    Challenges in the Relationship

    1. U.S. sanctions: Reduced oil imports, halted investments in Chabahar and other projects.
    2. Strategic competition: Iran–China 25-year pact and deepening Tehran–Beijing ties raise concerns for India.
    3. Regional volatility: Palestine, Syria, Yemen conflicts complicate India’s balancing approach.

    Ethical & Civilisational Diplomacy Dimension

    1. Civilisational diplomacy: Both countries advocate a just, humane, participatory order in contrast to Western domination.
    2. Palestine issue: Shared concern in Global South solidarity, though India has nuanced its position due to ties with Israel.
    3. Spiritual diplomacy: Shared heritage in Sufi and mystical traditions strengthens people-to-people bonds.