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  • On this day over 500 years ago, the Portuguese conquered Goa

    Why in the News?

    • On November 25, the Portuguese conquered Goa, establishing first territorial possession in India by any colonists.
      • This marked the beginning of Portugal’s 400-year colonial rule in the region, which ended only in 1961, making them the last colonial power to leave India.

    On this day over 500 years ago, the Portuguese conquered Goa

    Why the Portuguese came to Goa?

    • Vasco da Gama’s voyage in 1498 revealed the thriving trade networks in the Indian Ocean.
    • The Portuguese aimed to capitalize on the wealth from the Indian Ocean trade routes.
    • Rivalry with Muslim-controlled trade routes prompted the Portuguese to establish a military presence in the region.
      • In 1505, the Portuguese State of India was formally established, six years after Vasco da Gama’s arrival.
    • Francisco de Almeida, the first Viceroy, set up the first base in Fort Manuel (now part of Kochi).
      • The Portuguese controlled the Island of Bom Bahia (later Bombay) until it was ceded to England in 1661.

    How Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa?

    • Albuquerque (Viceroy, 1509-1515) understood that Goa was essential for controlling the maritime trade routes in the East.
    • The decision to attack Goa was influenced by Timmayya, a debated figure, either a Malabari pirate or an aristocrat with links to the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • Albuquerque’s first attack on Goa (February-March 1510) was largely successful due to the unpopularity of Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah’s rule among Goa’s Hindu population.
      • Many locals supported the Portuguese against the Sultan’s rule.
    • After being stranded on the Mandovi River during the monsoon season, Albuquerque received reinforcements from Portugal.
    • In November 1510, with reinforcements, Albuquerque launched a successful attack and retook Goa.

    Who Was Timmayya?

    • Timmayya, a key figure in the conquest of Goa, is described in various sources as a pirate from Malabar.
      • However, other historians argue that he was of noble birth and held a prestigious position in the Vijayanagara Empire.
      • According to historians, Timmayya was actually a high-ranking admiral in the Vijayanagara navy.
    • Though the Portuguese regarded him as a corsair or pirate, he was in fact executing orders from the Vijayanagara Empire, attacking Portuguese and rival merchant ships on his empire’s behalf.
    • While some historians argue that Timmayya’s counsel was pivotal in the timing of the attack on Goa, others suggest that Albuquerque may have already planned the assault, with Timmayya’s advice simply solidifying the decision.

    Why did Timmayya want Goa conquered?

    • The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire had long eyed Goa after it was lost to the Sultan of Bijapur.
    • Timmayya’s personal motivations were likely shaped by the empire’s strategic interest in regaining control of the region, as Goa was seen as a valuable territory in both military and economic terms.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Consider the following statements:​

    1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.

    2. It was during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.​

    3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala.​

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?​

    (a) 1 only ​

    (b) 1 and 2 only ​

    (c) 3 only​

    (d) 2 and 3 only

  • [pib] #AbKoiBahanaNahi Campaign

    Why in the News?

    The #AbKoiBahanaNahi national campaign was launched in New Delhi to empower women and end gender-based violence.

    About the #AbKoiBahanaNahi Campaign:

    About • Launched By:
    – Ministries of Women and Child Development
    – Ministries of Rural Development
    – Support from UN Women
    Aims and Objectives • End Gender-Based Violence: Create awareness and urgency to end violence against women and girls across India.
    • Dignity and Equality: Promote women’s dignity by empowering them to report violence and fight for their rights.
    • Gender Equality in Economy: Ensure full, equal participation of women in all sectors for building a developed India (Viksit Bharat).
    Implementation and Structural Mandate • National Call to Action: urging all stakeholders—citizens, NGOs, and government agencies—to actively work towards ending gender-based violence.
    • Alignment with Global Campaigns: The campaign aligns with the UN’s #NoExcuse global initiative, which calls for accountability and action against rising violence.
    • Supportive Interventions: Government measures to reduce women’s drudgery, ensure financial inclusion, bridge the gender digital divide, and provide safe spaces for women.
    Significance • Empowerment for Dignity: The campaign empowers women to fight for their dignity, free from societal constraints.
    • Women’s Role in National Development: Reinforces that achieving gender equality is crucial for India’s development by 2047.
    • Support to Women’s Rights: Promotes a holistic approach to women’s rights, ensuring gender-sensitive laws, healthcare, education, and economic opportunities.

    PYQ:

    [2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:

    1. Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc., whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.

    2. Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self-Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Why the world needs a Global Plastic Treaty?

    Why in the News?

    Over 170 countries will meet in Busan, South Korea, starting for the fifth and final round of negotiations on a legally binding global treaty to combat plastic and marine pollution by 2024.

    Why is a Global Plastic Treaty required?

    • Massive Increase in Plastic Production: Global plastic production has rapidly increased from 234 million tonnes in 2000 to 460 million tonnes in 2019, with expectations to reach 700 million tonnes by 2040. Asia is the largest producer, contributing nearly half of global plastic production.
    • Environmental and Health Impact: Plastic takes 20 to 500 years to decompose, and less than 10% is recycled. Around 400 million tonnes of plastic waste are generated annually, which is expected to rise by 62% by 2050. Much of this waste enters rivers and oceans, breaking down into microplastics that harm marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
    • Human Health Risks: Chemicals in plastics can disrupt hormones and cause diseases like cancer, diabetes, reproductive disorders, and neurodevelopmental impairments.
    • Contribution to Climate Change: Plastic production generates 3.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with most emissions coming from the production process, which relies on fossil fuels.
    • Global Plastic Pollution: India contributes significantly to global plastic pollution, accounting for 20% of the world’s total plastic waste, with emissions of 9.3 million tonnes.

    What is on the Negotiating table?

    • Comprehensive Global Rules: The primary goal is to develop a legally binding global treaty to address plastic pollution throughout its life cycle, including its production from fossil fuels, waste management, and disposal.
    • Production and Waste Management Caps: Countries are debating the introduction of production caps, which have been opposed by oil-rich and plastic-producing nations, including India.
    • Types of Plastic and Chemical Additives: Discussions are ongoing regarding banning specific types of plastic, plastic products, and harmful chemical additives used in their production.
    • Recycling and Content Targets: The treaty might include legally binding targets for recycling and recycled content in consumer goods.
    • Just Transition for Affected Communities: There will be talks on supporting workers and communities whose livelihoods depend on plastic production and industries, ensuring a fair transition.
    • Financial and Technical Assistance: A key agenda item is how to mobilize private and public funding to meet the treaty’s goals, especially for developing countries.

    What is India’s position?

    • India does not support caps on plastic production, arguing that such measures go beyond the scope of the UNEA resolution adopted in 2022. India insists that the treaty must include provisions for financial and technical support, including technology transfer for developing countries.
    • India maintains that decisions regarding harmful chemicals in plastic production should be based on scientific studies and that regulation should be handled at the National level.
    • India has banned 19 categories of single-use plastics domestically but insists that decisions on banning other plastic products should be “pragmatic” and consider national circumstances.
    • India advocates for the establishment of a mechanism to assess the infrastructure needs and financial resources required for safe and scientific waste management.
    • It also emphasizes the need for adequate, timely, and predictable financial resources to support waste management and other treaty objectives.

    Way forward: 

    • Global Collaboration with National Flexibility: The treaty should foster global collaboration on plastic pollution while allowing flexibility for countries to implement solutions based on their unique socio-economic contexts and developmental priorities.
    • Enhanced Financial and Technological Support: Developed countries must provide financial and technological assistance to developing nations to ensure equitable implementation of the treaty’s provisions, especially for waste management infrastructure and transitioning away from plastic reliance.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • Guru Tegh Bahadur

    Guru Tegh Bahadur

    Why in the News?

    November 24 is commemorated as the Shaheedi Divas of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th guru of the Sikhs, who was executed on the orders of Aurangzeb in 1675.

    Guru Tegh Bahadur: Everything you need to know

    Details
    Who was Guru Tegh Bahadur?
    • Born on April 1, 1621 in Amritsar, Punjab to Guru Hargobind (6th Sikh Guru), Mata Nanaki
      • Death: November 11, 1675, executed by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
    • Became 9th Guru (1665 to 1675)
    • Promoted the idea of Nirbhau (fearless) and Nirvair (without enmity) and emphasized the oneness of God.
    • Referred to as ‘Hind Ki Chadar’ (Shield of India).
    What was his historical contribution?
    • Guru stood up for the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits, defending their right to practice their religion against Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s oppressive policies.
    • Refused to convert to Islam despite facing torture and persecution, ultimately leading to his execution.
    • Advocated for the principle of one God, rejecting idol worship and preaching about the unity of all religions.
    • Emphasized meditation, self-discipline, moral living, and serving others. He urged Sikhs to remain spiritually committed while defending the rights of the innocent.
    • His hymns are compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib, with 115 hymns attributed to him.
    • Many Gurdwaras are dedicated to him, including Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi, built on the site where he was executed.
    • Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh Guru, was born to Guru Tegh Bahadur in 1666.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints:

    1. Dadu Dayal
    2. Guru Nanak
    3. Tyagaraja

    Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?

    (a) 1 and 3

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 1 and 2

  • Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)

    Why in the News?

    Delhi has been experiencing severe air pollution for 10 days, leading the Supreme Court to criticize the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for its poor response.

    About Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM):

    Details
    About
      • A statutory body for air quality management in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas.
    • Established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas, Act 2021, replacing the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) (formed in 1998). 
    • It came into effect in 2020 through an ordinance.

    Structure:

    • Chairperson: Senior government official (Secretary or Chief Secretary)
    • 5 ex-officio members from Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh; 3 full-time technical members 
    • 3 members from NGOs
    • Technical support from CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog
    Functions
    • Monitor and coordinate air quality management efforts in NCR and adjoining areas
    • Research sources of air pollution and propose mitigation strategies
    • Implement air quality policies with state agencies
    • Raise public awareness and engage communities in air quality management
    Powers   Jurisdiction: Over air quality issues in NCR, including Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. 

    Powers:

    • Issue binding directions to authorities and individuals
    • Restrict activities impacting air quality
    • Investigate and enforce environmental pollution measures
    • Take strict actions against non-compliance under the CAQM Act, 2021
    • Initiate complaints and enforce regulations

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?

    1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.

    2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [pib] India’s first modern Compressed Biogas (CBG) Plant

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi inaugurated the 100 TPD cattle dung-based Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) plant in Gwalior.

    About the CBG Plant 

    • The plant is located in Laltipara, Gwalior, within the largest cowshed in the region, Adarsh Gaushala, which houses over 10,000 cattle.
      • It spans over 5 acres.
      • It is India’s first self-sufficient gaushala with a modern CBG plant, where cow dung and organic waste (such as vegetable and fruit waste from mandis and households) are processed into valuable biogas.
    • The project, developed at a cost of ₹31 crores, is a collaboration between Gwalior Municipal Corporation and the Indian Oil Corporation.

    Working features:

    • Bio CNG: The plant produces 2 tons of compressed Bio CNG daily from 100 tons of cattle dung, providing a cleaner, eco-friendly alternative to traditional fossil fuels.
    • Organic Manure: The plant also generates 10-15 tons of dry bio-manure daily, which is a valuable by-product for organic farming.
    • Windrow composting: The plant incorporates windrow composting, located adjacent to the main facility, which enhances organic waste processing.

     

    What is Compressed Biogas (CBG)?

    Details
    About
    • CBG is a renewable natural gas produced from the biochemical conversion of organic waste into methane.
    • It is chemically similar to CNG (compressed natural gas) and can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels in transportation, cooking, and power generation.
    Process of Making CBG
    1. Collection of Organic Waste: Organic waste such as agricultural residue, animal dung, food waste, and municipal solid waste is collected from farms, industries, and households.
    2. Anaerobic Digestion: Waste is placed in an airtight chamber, where microorganisms break it down without oxygen, producing biogas (methane, carbon dioxide, trace gases).
    3. Purification: The raw biogas undergoes purification through methods like pressure swing adsorption, water scrubbing, or membrane separation to remove impurities like CO₂, H₂S, and water, leaving pure methane.
    4. Compression: The purified methane is compressed to 200-250 bar pressure to form CBG, reducing volume for storage and transportation.
    5. Storage and Distribution: It is stored in high-pressure cylinders or tanks and transported to fuel stations or industries for various applications.
    Significance of CBG
    • Reduces fossil fuel dependence.
    • Mitigates landfill methane emissions.
    • CBG can replace CNG, reducing pollution.
    • Utilizes local organic waste.
    • Creates jobs, promotes organic farming, and provides eco-friendly fertilizers.

  • What is Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty, launched at Brazil G20?

    Why in the News?

    The recent G20 Leaders’ Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, featured the official launch of the Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty (referred to as “the Alliance”).

    What are the primary objectives of the Global Alliance?

    • Eradication of Hunger and Poverty: The Alliance aims to eliminate hunger and poverty by 2030, aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
    • Support for Vulnerable Populations: It focuses on providing targeted assistance to vulnerable groups through various initiatives, including cash transfers and school meal programs.
    • Resource Mobilization: The initiative emphasizes large-scale resource mobilisation to support its objectives, aiming to reach 500 million people through income distribution programs by 2030.

    Who are the key stakeholders involved in this initiative?

    • The Alliance has 148 founding members, including 82 countries such as India, Brazil, and Bangladesh.
    • It includes participation from 26 international organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNICEF.
    • Nine financial institutions and 31 philanthropic foundations and non-governmental organizations are also involved in supporting the Alliance’s goals.

    How will Alliance function?

    • The Alliance serves as a platform for countries to share best practices and access technical expertise or financial support from other member nations.
    • It offers more than 50 evidence-based policy instruments that member countries can utilize to develop their national strategies against hunger and poverty.
    • Unlike traditional funding bodies, the Alliance does not have an exclusive fund but acts as a matchmaking entity connecting countries in need with donors and technical support providers. Its operational costs are estimated at $2-3 million annually, funded by member contributions.

    What challenges does the Global Alliance aim to address in combating hunger and poverty?

    • Impact of COVID-19: The pandemic has exacerbated issues of hunger and poverty, reversing progress made toward the SDGs. The Alliance aims to counteract these setbacks by fostering international cooperation.
    • Global Inequalities: It addresses deepening social, racial, and gender inequalities that have been intensified by recent global crises.
    • Food Insecurity Projections: Current trends suggest that without intervention, millions will continue to live in extreme poverty and hunger by 2030—double the target levels set in the SDGs. The Alliance seeks to reverse these projections through coordinated action.

    Conclusion: The Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty aligns with SDGs 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) by mobilizing resources, fostering collaboration, and implementing targeted interventions to combat hunger, poverty, and inequalities, ensuring a sustainable and inclusive future.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Poverty and malnutrition create a vicious cycle, adversely affecting human capital formation. What steps can be taken to break the cycle? (UPSC IAS/2024)

  • International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)

    Why in the News?

    • India is set to host the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Global Cooperative Conference in Delhi this month.
      • It will mark the first time in the 130-year history of ICA that the ICA General Assembly and Global Cooperative Conference are being hosted in India.

    About the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA):

    Details
    About • Established in 1895 to unite, represent, and serve cooperatives globally.
    • Represents 315 cooperative federations and organizations from 107 countries.
    • Estimated to represent about 1 billion individuals worldwide across various sectors like agriculture, banking, fisheries, health, housing, insurance, and more.
    • It has held consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) since 1946, making it the first NGO to receive this status.
    • Custodian of the internationally recognized definition, values, and principles of cooperatives. 
    Structure of ICA • Governing Board: A 20-member board responsible for overseeing activities.
    • General Assembly: Highest governing authority, with representatives from member organizations, convened at least annually.
    • ICA is divided into four regional organizations:

    1. ICA Asia-Pacific (New Delhi, India),
    2. ICA Africa (Nairobi, Kenya),
    3. Cooperatives Europe (Brussels, Belgium), and
    4. ICA Americas (San JosĂŠ, Costa Rica).

    • 8 sectoral organizations representing cooperatives in various sectors like agriculture, banking, fisheries, and more.
    • 5 thematic committees focused on cooperative development, economic sustainability, social responsibility, and advocacy.
    Powers and Functions of ICA • Represents cooperatives in international forums, particularly within the United Nations and other multilateral organizations.
    • Influences international policies related to social and economic development and sustainable cooperative businesses.
    • Promote and define cooperative identity globally, ensuring cooperatives adhere to internationally recognized principles.
    • Collects and publishes data about the cooperative sector via reports like the World Cooperative Monitor and ICA Global 300 index.

  • International Criminal Court (ICC)

    Why in the News?

    The International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued arrest warrant for Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu accusing them of war crimes and crimes against humanity.

    About the International Criminal Court (ICC)

    Details
    What is it? • First international permanent court to prosecute individuals for serious international crimes.
    • Established under the Rome Statute (1998, w.e.f 2002).
    • 124 countries are States Parties to the Rome Statute.• Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands.
    Structural Mandate • Official languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish.
    • Members: 124 States Parties to the Rome Statute; Palestine (2015) and Malaysia (2019) became the latest members.
    • Notable non-members: India, Israel, the US, Russia, Ukraine, and China.
    • Funding: By contributions from member states and voluntary contributions.
    • Enforcement: Relies on state cooperation for enforcement, as it does not have its own police force.
    Composition   • Judges: Consists of 18 judges elected by the Assembly of States Parties for a term of 9 years.
    • Prosecutor: Leads the Office of the Prosecutor and investigates crimes.
    • Additional Components: Includes the Trust Fund for Victims (2004), Detention Centre, and the Assembly of States Parties.
    Jurisdiction  Prosecutes 4 main crimes:    

    1. War Crimes: Violations of the laws of war.
    2. Crimes against Humanity: Acts like murder, enslavement, and torture.
    3. Genocide: Intent to destroy a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.
    4. Crimes of Aggression: Unjustified military action against another state.

    • ICC can only prosecute crimes committed after the Rome Statute’s entry into force (July 1, 2002).

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] “Rule of Law Index” is released by which of the following?

    1. Amnesty International
    2. International Court of Justice
    3. The Office of UN Commissioner for Human Rights
    4. World Justice Project

  • In news: Ashtamudi Lake

    Ashtamudi Lake

    Why in the News?

    Several dead fish are floating on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake in Kerala due to illegal use of ‘thotta’ (explosives) and ‘nanchu’ (poisons) for fishing.

    About Ashtamudi Lake:

    Details
    About  • Brackish-water estuarine lake, located in Kerala, covering 5,700 hectares.
    • Designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2002.
    Geographical Features • Encompasses 8 channels (arms) connecting to the lake, giving it the name “Ashtamudi.” (gateway to the backwaters of Kerala)
    • Second largest lake in Kerala (first being the Vembanad Lake), drains into the sea via Neendakara estuary.
    • Kallada River is the main water source for the lake.
    • Historical significance as a major port city of Quilon, as recorded by Ibn Battuta.
    Flora and Fauna • Mangrove species: Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris.
    • Endangered species: Syzygium travancoricum and Calamus rotang.
    • 57 species of avifauna, including 6 migratory species and 51 resident species.
    •  In 2014, the Clam Governing Council became the first Marine Stewardship Council certified fishery in India for their sustainable clam fishing.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?

    (a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

    (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

    (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

    (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)