Distribution: yearly

[22nd November 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: India needs an environmental health regulatory agency

PYQ Relevance:
Q) “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC CSE 2022)

Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains has recently focused on Environmental Issues (2020) and regional Environmental Challenges (2023).

According to the Emissions Gap Report 2024 from the United Nations Environment Programme, India has seen over 6% more greenhouse gas emissions than the previous year.

Today at the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. These two examples show that India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.

Today’s editorial talks about the challenges around the current environmental health governance in India. This content can be used for ‘Environmental regulations and challenges’.

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

At the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. At the same time, India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.

What are the current gaps in India’s environmental health regulations?

Fragmented Regulatory Framework: Current environmental governance is divided among multiple ministries, such as the Ministryof Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW).
- This fragmentation results in a disconnect between environmental monitoring and health impact assessments, leading to ineffective responses to pollution-related health issues.
Outdated Legislation: Many existing laws, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, have not been updated to reflect current environmental challenges.
- They do not adequately address modern pollution sources or incorporate contemporary scientific understanding of environmental health risks.
Insufficient Data Collection and Research: There is a lack of reliable, comprehensive data on the health impacts of environmental pollutants.
- While organizations like the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) conduct important research, there is no centralized body to synthesize this data into actionable policies. This gap hampers effective regulation and public health interventions.
Inadequate Enforcement Mechanisms: Although laws exist to regulate pollution, enforcement remains weak due to bureaucratic inertia, lack of resources, and sometimes political influence.
- Compliance with pollution control measures is often not monitored effectively, allowing violations to persist without consequences.
Exemptions in New Regulations: Recent proposals, such as the Remediation of Contaminated Sites Rules, 2024, have notable exemptions that exclude certain types of contaminated sites from regulation (e.g., radioactive sites, abandoned mines).
- This can leave significant areas unaddressed in terms of cleanup and remediation efforts

How would a dedicated environmental health regulatory agency improve public health outcomes?

Integrated Approach: The agency would combine environmental and public health oversight, ensuring that regulations address the interconnectedness of environmental factors and health outcomes.
Enhanced Regulation and Enforcement: It would enforce stricter regulations on pollutants and ensure compliance from industries, reducing harmful exposures to air and water quality issues.
Data Collection and Research: The agency would prioritize systematic data collection on environmental health impacts, leading to better-informed policies and timely interventions for pollution-related health issues.
Public Awareness and Education: By educating the public about environmental health risks, the agency would empower communities to advocate for cleaner environments and healthier living conditions.

What international best practices can India adopt for an effective framework?

Implementation of EHS Guidelines: India can utilize the World Bank Group’s EHS Guidelines, which provide comprehensive standards for managing environmental health risks across various industries.
Framework for Environmental Public Health Functions: India can implement the EEPHF framework developed by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), which outlines responsibilities for health actors and governance structures necessary for effective environmental health management.
Comprehensive Risk Management: Implementing a structured risk management framework similar to that outlined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would allow India to evaluate multiple contaminants and exposure pathways comprehensively.
Environmental Health Incident Management: India can adopt a coordinated incident management framework like the Australia’s system, which provides mechanisms for responding to environmental health incidents effectively. This includes preparedness measures, effective communication strategies, and collaboration across government sectors to minimize impacts on public health.

Way Forward: To improve environmental health in India, there is a need for an integrated regulatory approach that updates laws, enhances enforcement, engages communities, and ensures comprehensive monitoring of pollutants.

November 22, 2024

A bilateral investment treaty with a ‘bit’ of change

Why in the News?

The bilateral investment treaty (BIT) between India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), signed earlier this year, has recently been made public. This new treaty will replace the 2014 India-UAE investment agreement and holds significant importance.

What is the Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) for investors?

The Model BIT is a framework established by India to guide negotiations for bilateral investment treaties, aiming to protect foreign investments while balancing the state’s regulatory rights.
It emphasizes clear definitions, local remedies, and limits on investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) claims.

Background of 2024 BIT:

The 2014 India-UAE investment treaty, formally known as the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA), was established to enhance economic cooperation and protect investments between India and the United Arab Emirates.
This treaty aimed to create a stable and predictable investment climate for investors from both countries, facilitating foreign direct investment (FDI) flows.

The 2014 BIPPA was replaced by a new Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) signed in February 2024, which came into effect in August 2024.
This new BIT introduces several changes aimed at improving investment protection and reducing arbitral discretion while maintaining India’s regulatory sovereignty.

What are the implications of India’s revised Model BIT for foreign investors?

Enhanced Investor Protection: The new BIT aims to provide greater protection for foreign investments while balancing the state’s right to regulate. This is expected to boost investor confidence by assuring minimum standards of treatment and non-discrimination.
Quicker Access to ISDS: The reduction of the local remedies exhaustion period from five years to three years allows investors to access international arbitration more quickly if disputes arise, potentially making India a more attractive destination for foreign investments.
Clearer Definitions and Reduced Discretion: By refining the definition of what constitutes an investment and removing subjective criteria related to the significance of investments for host state development, the BIT reduces arbitral discretion, which can lead to more predictable outcomes in dispute resolution.

How does the India-UAE BIT depart from the Model BIT?

Exhaustion of Local Remedies: As noted, the India-UAE BIT lowers the exhaustion period from five years to three years, reflecting India’s responsiveness to concerns about lengthy legal processes in its judicial system.
Removal of Development Significance Criterion: The BIT omits the requirement that investments must significantly contribute to the host state’s development—a criterion present in the Model BIT. This change simplifies the definition of what constitutes an investment eligible for protection, reducing subjective interpretations by ISDS tribunals.
No Reference to Customary International Law: Unlike the Model BIT, which links treaty violations to customary international law (CIL), Article 4 of the India-UAE BIT does not reference CIL, thereby limiting arbitral discretion and providing clearer grounds for evaluating state actions against investments.
Prohibition on Third-Party Funding: The new treaty explicitly disallows third-party funding in ISDS proceedings, which may impact investors’ ability to finance their claims against states without personal financial risk.

What are the positives and future opportunities for India-UAE BIT relations?

Strengthened Economic Cooperation: The BIT is expected to enhance bilateral economic ties by providing a stable legal framework that encourages investment flows between India and the UAE, both of which have significant stakes in each other’s economies.
Increased FDI Inflows: With UAE being a key source of foreign direct investment (FDI) for India, estimated at around $19 billion, the new treaty is anticipated to stimulate further investments, benefiting various sectors in both countries.
Alignment with Broader Economic Agreements: The BIT complements other agreements such as the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), reinforcing a comprehensive framework for economic collaboration beyond just investment protection.
Potential Influence on Future Treaties: India’s approach in negotiating this BIT may serve as a model for future treaties with other countries, reflecting a more flexible stance that could attract additional foreign investments while still safeguarding national interests.

Conclusion: The India-UAE BIT offers stronger investment protection, quicker dispute resolution, and clearer definitions, fostering bilateral economic ties. This new agreement balances investor rights and state regulation, encourages increased FDI, strengthens economic cooperation, and could influence future treaties for enhanced global investment.

Mains PYQ:

Q How will the I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics? (UPSC IAS/2022)

November 22, 2024

[pib] India’s First Indigenous Antibiotic: Nafithromycin

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Science & Technology has launched Nafithromycin, India’s first indigenous antibiotic to combat drug-resistant infections.

About Nafithromycin:

	Details
About	• It was developed with the support of the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), a unit under the Department of Biotechnology, to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR). • It aims to treat *Community-Acquired Bacterial Pneumonia (CABP)* caused by drug-resistant bacteria. ( Awaiting final approval from CDSCO for manufacturing and public use.)
Features	• Developed over 14 years of clinical trials in the U.S., Europe, and India. • 10 times more effective than azithromycin. (3 doses to combat Drug-Resistant Pneumonia) • Minimal side effects, no significant drug interactions, and food-independent.
Significance	• It targets both typical and atypical pathogens. • It addresses a global health issue, especially CABP, contributing to over 2 million deaths annually. • Offers a more effective, faster, and safer treatment for drug-resistant pneumonia. • Demonstrates successful public-private collaboration between the government and Wockhardt Pharmaceuticals. • A cost-effective solution for treating resistant infections in low-resource settings.

PYQ:

[2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

Genetic predisposition of some people
Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
Using antibiotics in livestock farming
Multiple chronic diseases in some people

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4

November 22, 2024

Species in news: King Cobra

Why in the News?

A 12-year study by researchers from the Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology has revealed that the king cobra, previously believed to be a single species, actually comprises four distinct species.

Important facts related to King Cobra:

	Details
About	• Scientific Name: Ophiophagus hannah. • It is the largest Venomous Snake; Reaches up to 18 feet (5.5 meters). • Venom is Neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system.
Re-categorization	Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology identified the species as: O. Hannah (Northern), O. bungarus (Sunda), O. kaalinga (Western Ghats), and O. salvatana (Luzon). Species differ by 1-4% genetically, justifying their reclassification.
Habitat and Behavioural Features	• Found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions ( India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines) • Solitary and territorial, with a diet of snakes, lizards, birds, and rodents. • Mating occurs annually during monsoon, with females laying up to 40 eggs in nests. • Raises and spreads its hood when threatened, appearing larger. • Vital in controlling snake populations and maintaining ecological balance.
Conservation Status	IUCN Red List: Vulnerable. CITES: Appendix II. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule II.

PYQ:

[2010] King Cobra is the only snake that makes its own nest. Why does it make its nest?

(a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
(b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to give birth to its offspring
(c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in the nest and guards the nest until they are hatched
(d) It is a large, cold-blooded animal and needs a nest to hibernate in the cold season

November 22, 2024

Project Veer Gatha 4.0

Why in the News?

Over 1.76 crore school students participated in Project Veer Gatha 4.0, sharing creative tributes to the bravery and sacrifice of Armed Forces personnel.

About Project Veer Gatha:

	Details
About	• Launched in 2021 to honor the acts of bravery and selfless sacrifice of Gallantry Awardees. • 1.76 crore students from 36 states and UTs participated. • Conducted annually since its inception, with increasing participation: • First Edition (2021): 8 lakh students, Second Edition (2022): 19.5 lakh students, Third Edition (2023): 1.36 crore students.
Aims and Objectives	• Instill patriotism and national pride among students. • Spread awareness about the heroic contributions of Gallantry Awardees. • Foster creativity through various forms of artistic expression. • Promote national unity and pride across India’s diverse school system. • Enhance knowledge about unsung heroes and military heritage.
Features of the Program	• Creative content submissions, including poems, paintings, essays, and videos. • 100 national-level winners annually, with a ₹10,000 cash prize and recognition by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Defence. • District and state awards for outstanding students. • Educational outreach programs by the Ministry of Defence to engage students. • Digital submission via the MyGov portal, making the process inclusive and easy for wide participation. • Focus on both famous Gallantry Awardees and unsung heroes.

PYQ:

[2024] Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:

(a) Operation Sankalp

(b) Operation Maitri

(d) Operation Madad

November 22, 2024

Why India’s trade deficit is not necessarily a weakness?

Why in the News?

India’s ongoing trade deficit, where imports exceed exports, is often viewed as a sign of weakness in Indian manufacturing.

What is the nature of India’s trade deficit?

Trade Deficit in Goods: As of October 2024, India recorded a merchandise trade deficit of $27.1 billion, which narrowed from $31.5 billion in the same month the previous year.
Net Exporter of Services: India has established itself as a significant player in the global services market, with services exports constituting a substantial portion of its overall trade.
- In FY 2023-24, India’s services exports amounted to approximately $309 billion, contributing significantly to offsetting the goods trade deficit
Foreign Capital Inflows: The trade deficit is often viewed positively as it correlates with India’s ability to attract foreign investment.
- For instance, India’s current account deficit was about 1.1% of GDP in June 2024, indicating that capital inflows are necessary to balance this outflow.
Current Account Balance: The current account deficit (CAD) reached approximately $9.7 billion in the April-June 2024 quarter, reflecting the need for capital inflows to support economic growth and stability.
- India’s current account deficit has been maintained at around 2% of GDP, which is generally considered manageable within the context of its economic growth and investment strategies.

Why do we hold reserves?

Cushion Against Economic Shocks: Reserves are held as a safeguard against potential economic disruptions, such as sudden spikes in oil prices that could worsen the current account deficit.
For Cost Management: While holding reserves incurs costs (e.g., lower returns on reserves compared to returns on foreign investments), they are essential for maintaining economic stability and investor confidence.
Optimal Level of Reserves: India aims to maintain adequate reserves without excessive accumulation. This involves balancing the need for emergency funds against the costs associated with holding those reserves.

What are the Steps taken by the Government?

Make in India Initiative: Launched in 2014, this initiative aims to boost domestic manufacturing by encouraging both foreign and domestic companies to manufacture their products in India.
- It focuses on sectors such as electronics, automobiles, and pharmaceuticals to increase production capabilities, reduce dependency on imports, and enhance export competitiveness.
Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Introduced in 2020, the PLI scheme provides financial incentives to manufacturers across various sectors, including electronics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals.
- This program is designed to attract investments, promote local manufacturing, and increase exports by enhancing the global competitiveness of Indian products.

What strategies can mitigate the effects of the trade deficit? (Way forward)

Boosting Domestic Demand: Encouraging greater domestic consumption can help increase manufacturing output. Rising domestic demand can lead to higher production levels without necessarily increasing imports.
Enhancing Export Competitiveness: Focusing on sectors where India has a comparative advantage, such as pharmaceuticals and automobiles, can help increase export volumes and reduce the trade deficit.
Diversifying Import Sources: Reducing reliance on specific countries for imports (e.g., crude oil) by diversifying sources can help stabilize import costs and mitigate fluctuations in global prices.
Investing in Manufacturing Capabilities: Strengthening domestic manufacturing through policies supporting local industries can reduce import dependency and enhance export capacity.

Mains PYQ:

Q Craze for gold in India has led to a surge in the import of gold in recent years and put pressure on the balance of payments and the external value of the rupee. In view of this, examine the merits of the Gold Monetization scheme. (UPSC IAS/2015)

November 21, 2024

Coffee Board devises road map with eye on doubling production, exports

Why in the News?

The Coffee Board of India has launched a 10-year roadmap with a goal to double the country’s coffee production and coffee exports by 2034.

About Coffee Board of India:

	Details
About	• Coffee cultivation in India began with the planting of 7 seeds of coffee during 1600 AD by saint *Baba Budan, in the courtyard of his hermitage in Chikmagalur, Karnataka. • Until* 1995, marketed the pooled supply of coffee. • Post-1995, coffee marketing became a private-sector activity due to economic liberalisation.
Structural Mandate	• Managed by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, established in 1942, headquartered in Bangalore. • Comprises 33 members, including a Chairman appointed by the Government of India.
Functions of Coffee Board	• Enhancement of production, productivity & quality. • Export promotion for achieving higher value returns for Indian Coffee. • Supporting the development of the domestic market.
Coffee Industry in India – Imports/Exports	• Karnataka is the largest producer (70%), followed by Kerala and Tamil Nadu. • India exports over 70% of its coffee production. • India is the 8th largest coffee exporter (FAO) globally (by volume). • Coffee exports peak from March to June.
Agro-climatic Conditions	• It is a tropical plant which is also grown in semi-tropical climate. • 16° – 28°C temperature, 150-250cm rainfall and well-drained slopes are essential for its growth. • *Low temperature, frost, dry weather* for a long time and harsh sunshine are harmful for its plant. • Coffee plants grow better in the laterite soils of Karnataka in India. • Major Varieties Cultivated: Arabica, Robusta and Liberica. • Arabica has high market value than Robusta coffee due to its mild aromatic flavor.

PYQ:

[2010] Though coffee and tea both are cultivated on hill slopes, there is some difference between them regarding their cultivation. In this context, consider the following statements:

Coffee plant requires a hot and humid climate of tropical areas whereas tea can be cultivated in both tropical and subtropical areas.
Coffee is propagated by seeds but tea is propagated by stem cuttings only.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

November 21, 2024

Chancay Port Project in Peru

Why in the News?

The Chancay Port was inaugurated in Peru by Chinese President Xi Jinping.

About Chancay Port Project:

The Chancay Port Project was inaugurated in Peru as part of a new land-sea corridor linking China with Latin America.
It is funded under Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), with a total cost of $3.6 billion.
The port can accommodate vessels up to 18,000 TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent unit), the largest shipping vessels in the world.
Ownership: 60% of the port is owned by China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company (COSCO), with the remaining stake held by a local company.
It is expected to generate $4.5 billion annually for Peru, equivalent to 1.8% of the country’s GDP.
Key Exports: The port will handle exports like copper, blueberries, soybeans, and lithium from the lithium triangle (Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina).

Geo-strategic Location:

Proximity to Lima: Located 78 km north of Lima, Peru’s capital, in the small fishing town of Chancay.
Natural Deep-Water Port: Chancay is a natural deep-water port, ideal for accommodating large vessels.
Trade Gateway: Positioned strategically to facilitate trade between South America and Asia, reducing transit time for goods between the two continents.
Alternative to North America: It eliminates the need for Latin American exports to transit through ports in North America, offering a more direct route to Asia.

Why it is a concern for USA?

Chinese Influence in Latin America: The US has traditionally viewed Latin America as its sphere of influence. The Chancay Port increases China’s economic and geopolitical presence in the region.
Strategic Gateway for China: The port strengthens China’s access to critical resources in South America, including lithium and copper, raising concerns about China’s growing dominance in the region.
US Trade Routes Disruption: The port reduces transportation time between Latin America and Asia, which could disrupt existing US trade routes and diminish its role as a trade facilitator.

PYQ:

[2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?

(a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.

(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.

(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India.

November 21, 2024

[pib] MJS launches ‘Bhu-Neer’ Portal for Ground Water Withdrawal Permits

Why in the News?

The ‘Bhu-Neer’ Portal was digitally launched by Minister of Jal Shakti, during the India Water Week 2024.

About the ‘Bhu-Neer’ Portal:

	Details
About	• Centralized platform for managing groundwater withdrawal permits. • Developed by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) and National Informatics Centre (NIC). • Aims to regulate groundwater usage across India efficiently, ensuring transparency and sustainability.
Features and Provisions	• User-friendly interface with PAN-based single ID, NOC with QR code, and streamlined processes. • Improved version compared to its predecessor, NOCAP. • Ensures groundwater compliance and promotes sustainable practices.
Implementation	• The portal is live and accessible for groundwater queries, tracking, and payments. • Open to both project proponents and the general public for groundwater-related services.

Back2Basics: Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

It has the mandate of regulating groundwater development and management in the country.
It is constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
CGWA issues advisories, public notices and grant No Objection Certificates (NOC) for groundwater withdrawal.

PYQ:

[2020] Consider the following statements:

1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).

2. CGWA was formed under the Environment (Protection) Act.

3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1 and 3 only

November 21, 2024

How India could counter the CBAM?

Why in the News?

India has called protectionist policies like the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, and Deforestation Regulation as “unfair” and “unjust”.

What is CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism)?

CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) is a proposed policy by the European Union (EU) aimed at addressing carbon leakage, ensuring that imported goods face a similar carbon cost as those produced within the EU.
The mechanism requires companies that export goods to the EU from non-EU countries to purchase carbon certificates, reflecting the carbon emissions involved in the production of these goods.
This is intended to create a level playing field for EU industries that have to meet strict carbon emissions regulations.

How will the CBAM impact India’s key industries and overall trade?

Disruption to Trade: CBAM could significantly affect India’s exports to the EU, especially sectors like iron, steel, aluminum, cement, and fertilizers, which account for a large portion of India’s trade with the EU.
Increased Export Costs: The new requirements under CBAM, such as carbon emission certificates, will likely increase production costs for industries, making them less competitive in the global market.
Risk to Iron and Steel Industry: As iron and steel make up 76.83% of India’s exports affected by CBAM, this sector could face the greatest challenge in terms of compliance and potential cost increases.
Economic Strain on Developing Economies: The additional burden of having to meet emissions standards without corresponding support or time for transition may lead to economic difficulties for India’s industries.

What strategies can India employ to effectively challenge the CBAM?

Coordination with Other Developing Countries: India should align its arguments with other developing economies to present a unified stance, ensuring a coordinated response to the EU-CBAM that reflects shared concerns.
Arguing for Adequate Time for Adaptation: India can argue that developing nations should be given sufficient time to adapt to the CBAM, similar to the EU’s phased climate targets, to avoid disproportionate burden.
Revenue Sharing: India can advocate for the EU to share the revenues generated from CBAM with non-EU countries to support capacity building, technology transfer, and emission reduction initiatives in developing nations.
Equity-Based Accounting (EBA) Proposal: India can push for a more equitable framework for emission reductions, suggesting the adoption of an EBA that takes into account historical contributions to climate change, trade benefits, and the developmental needs of nations.
Highlighting the CBAM’s Discriminatory Nature: India should emphasize that CBAM imposes an unjust transfer of climate responsibilities to developing countries without considering their economic realities or historical emissions.

What role does International cooperation play in addressing the challenges?

Global Coordination on Climate Action: India should work with other developing countries to demand a more inclusive global framework for addressing climate change, ensuring that the impacts of mechanisms like CBAM are shared equitably.
Technology and Knowledge Sharing: International cooperation can facilitate the transfer of green technologies, which would help developing nations meet emissions targets without stifling their economic growth.
Addressing Historical Responsibilities: Cooperation with other nations can strengthen calls for addressing historical emissions and providing the necessary financial resources to developing countries to adapt to climate policies like CBAM.
Leveraging Multilateral Platforms: India can use international platforms such as the UNFCCC and COP discussions to engage with other nations and challenge policies that disproportionately affect developing economies.

Conclusion: India should actively engage with other developing countries and form a coalition to present a unified front against the discriminatory nature of CBAM. This could involve joint lobbying at international forums such as the UNFCCC and COP summits.

Mains PYQ:

Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)

November 20, 2024