GS Paper: GS1-07. Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues.

“I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

Major women movements in India

Anti-Sati Movement led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

Satyashodhak Samaj led by Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule pioneered female education

Anti-Dowry Campaigns (1980s)- Led by groups like Mahila Dakshata Samiti

Women’s Indian Association first to demand women’s suffrage

SEWA – Founded by Ela Bhatt, organized women in SHG and trade unions

Mathura Rape Case Protest (1979-80)- led to first major amendment in Rape Laws

Triple Talaq Movement led by the Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA)

Chipko Movement- Led by women like Gaura Devi

Navdanya Movement (Vandana Shiva) – empowers women to preserve biodiversity and seeds

#MeToo Movement – against sexual harassment at workplace

However, they failed to address the issues of women of lower strata

It failed to recognise the triple burden of discrimination (intersection of Caste, Class, and Gender) as it treated “Woman” as a monolithic category. Eg- Hatras rape case

Intersection of gender and religious marginalization was weakly addressed. Eg- Muslim women’s socio-economic exclusion received less attention beyond advocacy of UCC and Triple Talaq

Leadership and agenda dominated by elite women – Early focus on legal reforms like dowry and workplace equality over survival issues like hunger and wage security.

Limited focus on informal and unpaid work – Eg- more focuses on “glass ceilings” in corporate offices, neglecting agricultural laborers. (Over 90% of Dalit women work in the unorganized sector.)

Urban bias in issues and mobilization – Eg- Rural women’s access to drinking water, fuelwood, and sanitation remained peripheral.

Inadequate engagement with tribal women’s concerns – Development-induced displacement received limited feminist mobilization.

Neglect of women issues in conflict zones – Eg- Women in Kashmir and the Northeast did not become sustained focal points of mainstream movements.

Dependence on NGO-ization and donor agendas – Project-driven advocacy replaced mass mobilization among poor women.

Educational Exclusion- Elite feminism focuses on “STEM representation,” while lower-strata women struggle with basic literacy and school dropouts.

Health Disparities- feminist debates revolve around “reproductive choice” (abortion rights), while marginalized women face lack of basic maternal healthcare.

Language Barrier- Feminist discourse is largely in English, creating a “vocabulary of exclusion” for rural, non-English speaking women.

Digital Divide- “Hashtag Activism” (#MeToo) failed to reach rural women due to digital illiteracy.

Counter-Argument- Positive Impacts on the Lower Strata

Grassroots Political Entry- Eg- women representation in PRIs stands at 46%

SHGs- NABARD-led SHG movement has empowered millions of rural women through micro-credit and financial literacy. Eg- Kudumbshree in Kerala

Legal empowerment-

SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.

Right to temple entry after Sabrimala Verdict

Triple Talaq ban

Anti-Liquor Movements led by poor women to save household income and reduce domestic abuse. Eg- Arrack Movement in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh

Eco-Feminism- Chipko Movement was essentially a struggle by rural women for their daily fuel and fodder resources.

Labor Reforms- SEWA model has successfully unionized thousands of street vendors and ragpickers.

Dalit Feminism- rise of autonomous groups like the National Federation of Dalit Women (NFDW).

Way Forward

Adopting an “Intersectionality Lens” that acknowledges caste and class alongside gender in every policy.

Caste-Gender Sensitivity Training for police and judiciary

Mainstreaming Gender Budgeting

De-NGO-ization – Revive grassroots feminist politics.

Only by embracing a “Bahujan Feminism” can the movement fulfill Ambedkar’s vision of a truly progressive and equal society.

“There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women.” – Kofi Annan

The 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), moved the focus of population policy away from “target-driven” approach to “rights-based” empowerment.

Inverse Correlation of Education and TFR – According to NFHS-5 (2021-23), women with no schooling have a TFR of 2.8, while those with 12+ years of schooling have a TFR of 1.8.

The “Kerala Model” shows that high female literacy leads to low Infant Mortality Rates (IMR), reducing the need for “extra” children as insurance.

Economic Independence – Working women prioritise quality of life over large families.

As women enter the formal workforce, the “Opportunity Cost” of child-rearing in terms of lost wages and career progression rises, leading to preference for smaller families.

Delay in Age of Marriage shortens the biological fertility window. Eg- average age of marriage for women with professional degrees is 27 years.

Greater Birth Spacing awareness among educated and employed women

Digital literacy allows women to access family planning information and tele-health services privately, bypassing social taboos.

Enhanced Reproductive Agency – Amartya Sen argues that “Women’s Agency” is more effective than any state-mandated policy, as it transforms women into active decision-makers.

Breakdown of Traditional Gender Roles – Empowerment challenges the notion that a woman’s primary value is reproductive and also reduces Son Preference

Global Precedence – Bangladesh’s success in dropping TFR from 6.7 in 1960 to 2.1 in 2017 was driven by micro-finance and female education.

Increase in Political Participation of Women – Women leaders prioritise health, education, and family welfare.

Challenges to this Approach

Persistent “Son Meta-Preference”

Prevalence of child marriage – 23.3% of women were married before age 18 years. (NFHS-5)

Stigmatization of male sterilization. Eg- 37.9% of women undergoing sterilization compared to only 0.3% of men. (NFHS-5)

Religious and Cultural Dogma – In certain conservative pockets, empowerment is viewed as an “attack on tradition,” leading to resistance against family planning.

Lack of Old-Age Social Security for informal sector workers – children are seen as “economic assets” for old age

Structural Barriers in Healthcare – Rural Health Statistics report shows a 75%% shortage of female gynecologists in Community Health Centers (CHCs).

Dual Burden – women spend 300% more time on unpaid care work than men (Time Use Survey).

Sustainable population control will emerge not from coercion, but from choice, dignity, and equality for women. This can be achieved through

Promoting Male Engagement

Universal old-age pension

Entrepreneurship under Stand-up India

Empowering ASHA workers

Despite constitutional guarantees, legal reforms, and social movements, women in India continue to face persistent challenges that transcend historical periods and vary across geographies and social locations.

Challenges across time

Patriarchal social norms – Enduring preference for male authority and control over women. Eg- son meta preference

Control over female sexuality – Moral policing, honour-based violence, restrictions on marriage choices.

Child Marriages – 23% (NFHS-5)

Khap panchayats restricting wearing jeans etc

Unequal care burden – women spend an average of 305 minutes daily on unpaid domestic work, compared to only 98 minutes for men.

Educational discontinuity due to marriage and caregiving. Eg- Higher dropout rates among adolescent girls.

Economic marginalization

Women constitute 63% of agriculture workforce but own only 13% of land

Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China

Violence against women – domestic violence, workplace harassment etc. Eg- Nirbhaya Case

Legal-social gap – Eg- proxy representation in PRIs (Sarpanch Pati syndrome)

Challenges across life-cycle stages

Before Birth – female foeticide

Childhood and adolescent stage – Nutrition neglect (57% anemia), high dropouts

Adulthood – Maternal health and autonomy issues. Eg- early pregnancies.

Elderly women’s vulnerability – Loneliness, poverty, and lack of social security

Challenges across space

Rural-urban divide

Limited mobility in rural areas due to safety and norms.

Safety concerns and informal employment in cities.

Caste and community-based challenges

Caste-based violence – Gender violence used as social control. Eg- Hatras rape case

Mining and infrastructure-induced displacement of Tribal women

Minority women’s double marginalization – Eg- Muslim women’s low labour force participation.

Challenges in Economic space

Concentration in low paying care and domestic work

Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

Digital Divide – 51.6% of women aged 15 years and above in rural areas do not own a mobile phone (NSO)

Regional and cultural disparities

Regional inequality – Eg- Higher TFR in Bihar (3.0 vs national average of 1.9)

Violence in conflict zones – Eg- gang-rape and naked parade of two Kuki-Zo women in Manipur

Improvements made

Political

Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam

46% representation in PRIs

Legal-

stringent and gender-sensitive provisions in Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita

PCPNDT and POSH Acts

Health – Institutional Deliveries increased from 78.9% (NFHS-4) to 88.6% (NFHS-5).

Education- women constitute 43% of STEM graduates.

Economic- Over 28 crore women now have personal Jan Dhan accounts.

Asset Ownership- Under PM Awas Yojana, 70% of houses are registered in the name of women.

Way Forward

Mainstreaming gender budgeting

Expand One Stop Centres (OSCs) under Mission Shakti for integrated support services

Introduce gender sensitisation modules in school curricula nationwide.

Comprehensive Healthcare

Expand coverage and financial incentives under Janani Suraksha Yojana and PM Matru Vandana Yojana

Leverage digital health tools like MP’s SUMAN SAKHI chatbot to provide real-time support to expecting mothers.

Women-Centric Urban Infrastructure- Eg- “Sakhi Niwas” hostels for working women

Thus, sustainable gender justice requires simultaneous expansion of resources, agency, and participation.

Gig Economy refers to a labor market characterized by the prevalence of short-term contracts or freelance work as opposed to permanent jobs.

Role of Gig Economy in Women Empowerment

Work-Life Integration- Gig work offers flexible hours, allowing women to balance the “Double Burden” (41% of Indian women are primary caregivers).

Economic Autonomy- It provides a direct source of income for women in Tier-II and Tier-III cities where formal job opportunities are scarce.

Formalizing Informal Skills- Platforms like Urban Company have professionalized domestic skills. Eg- beauticians, cleaning.

Bypassing Social Gatekeepers- Digital platforms allow women to access work directly, reducing dependence on male family members.

Financial Inclusion- Gig platforms mandate digital payments into personal bank accounts, enabling women to build a “credit history” for small business loans.

Safety through Technology- Features like real-time GPS tracking, SOS buttons provide a sense of security for women working in transit-heavy roles. Eg- zomato delivery

Upskilling Opportunities- Many platforms provide vocational training.

Re-entry into Workforce- Gig work provides a low-barrier entry point for women returning from “maternity breaks”.

Global Market Access- High-skill gig workers serve international clients via platforms like Upwork or Fiverr.

Collective Bargaining- rise of unions like the Gig and Platform Services Workers Union (GIPSWU). Eg- Diwali ‘digital strike’ by female gig workers in 2024

Challenges for Women in the Gig Economy

Digital Divide- 51.6% of women aged 15 years and above in rural areas do not own a mobile phone (NSO)

Lack of Social Security- Eg- excluded from the Maternity Benefit Act and paid sick leaves.

Wage Disparity- 40% of gig workers earn below ₹15,000/month, and women often earn less due to an inability to work “high-incentive” late-night hours.

Occupational Segregation- women confined to beauty and care while men dominate higher-paying delivery and ride-hailing sectors.

Safety Risks- Women in home-service gigs face risks of harassment and customer misconduct

Gig platforms classify women as ‘independent contractors’ – excluded from protections under POSH Act

Way Forward

Adopting global best practices – Eg- Platform Work Directive (EU)

Skill Diversification- Government-led missions to train women in sectors like EV-cab driving and tech-maintenance to break occupational silos.

Algorithmic Accountability– Transparency and fairness in digital management systems that control job assignments, worker ratings, and payouts.

A multi-stakeholder approach is necessary to turn the gig economy from a place of exploitation to one of opportunity for women.

India accounts for approximately 37% of global female suicide deaths. It is now the leading cause of death for Indian women aged 15-39.

Causes Behind Increasing Suicide Among Young Women

Housewives – over 50% of suicides

Marriage-related pressures and domestic violence

social isolation, lack of economic agency, and the “unseen” nature of domestic labor

Students

Academic and career stress – Rising aspirations without sufficient support. Eg- Student suicides in Kota.

Inadequate counselling facilities in schools, colleges, and hostels.

Working women

Cyberbullying and Online harassment culture affect self-worth. Eg- Trolling, non-consensual sharing of images.

Workplace discrimination and sexual harassment

Social causes

Intersectional vulnerabilities – Caste, class, and rural disadvantage intensify distress. Eg- Dalit and rural women

Patriarchal control – Restrictions on mobility, education, and choice generate helplessness. Eg- Family opposition to inter-caste or inter-faith relationships.

Child Marriages – 23% women are married before 18 (NFHS-5) – exposes them to abusive relationship

Weak institutional support systems –

Mental health neglect and stigma – Depression and anxiety often go undiagnosed and untreated.

India has 0.75 psychiatrist per 1 lakh people (global avg – 13)

Way Forward

Implementation of National Suicide Prevention Strategy to reduce suicide mortality by 10% by 2030.

WHO’s “LIVE LIFE” Approach- limiting access to means , responsible media reporting to prevent “copycat” suicides, and fostering life skills in adolescents.

Training “frontline” community members like ASHA workers to identify early warning signs and providing counselling.

Implementing Saha Guidelines for preventing student suicide

Integrating “Cyber-Safety” and mental health resilience into the school curriculum.

Workplace Wellness Mandates- Eg- POSH workshops and mental health support

As highlighted by World Health Organization, suicide is preventable through timely intervention and supportive environments.