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GS Paper: GS2-20.Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.

  • Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic.

    The WHO, established in 1948, is the UN’s specialized agency responsible for global public health coordination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, its actions were criticized for lack of timeliness, transparency, and independence.

    Positive Role of WHO during the Pandemic

    Early Alerts: Declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) in January 2020.

    Technical Guidance: Issued scientific protocols, travel advisories, and surveillance guidelines to member states.

    Global Solidarity Mechanisms: Launched the Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator (ACT-A) and COVAX Facility to ensure equitable vaccine distribution.

    Information Sharing: Provided daily situation reports and facilitated exchange of data among countries.

    Support to Developing Nations through logistics, diagnostics, and training.

    Research and development about the virus – transmission, mutation, and vaccination.

    Criticisms and Limitations

    Delayed Declaration of Pandemic: Accused of underestimating the early outbreak in Wuhan and relying too heavily on China’s official data.

    Political Influence: inadequate scrutiny of China’s early containment measures.

    Weak Enforcement Powers: WHO lacks authority to compel nations to share data or enforce health regulations under the International Health Regulations (2005).

    Vaccine Inequity: Despite COVAX, vaccine access remained highly unequal.

    Funding Dependence: Over 80% of WHO’s budget comes from voluntary contributions.

    Confusion among public and healthcare professionals due to inconsistencies in communication

    Way Forward

    Strengthen the International Health Regulations (IHR) for faster response and accountability.

    Establish a Global Health Emergency Council for coordinated crisis action.

    Financial autonomy to reduce donor dependency.

    To ensure future global health security, WHO must evolve into a more independent, transparent, and empowered institution, capable of acting decisively in the face of global emergencies.

  • ‘Sea is an important Component of the Cosmos’. Discuss in the light of the above statement the role of the IMO(International Maritime Organisation) in protecting environment and enhancing maritime safety and security.

    The oceans cover nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface and are the foundation of planetary life. The IMO, a UN specialized agency established in 1959, plays a critical role in promoting safe, secure, and environmentally sustainable use of the seas.

    Sea as an Important Component of the Cosmos

    It regulates climate, supports biodiversity, and drives global trade (over 80% of international trade by volume)

    Oceans absorb about 30% of global CO₂ emissions, produce half of the world’s oxygen, and absorb 90% of excess heat generated.

    Biodiversity and Life: Marine ecosystems host nearly 80% of all life forms

    Moral Value as part of the “common heritage of mankind”

    Engine of the Blue Economy: fisheries, renewable ocean energy, tourism, and seabed resources

    Role of IMO in Environmental Protection

    Net-Zero Framework – a global mechanism to price carbon emissions from ships and use the proceeds to help developing countries transition to green shipping.

    Pollution Prevention through MARPOL convention:

    Regulates oil, chemical, sewage, garbage, and air pollution.

    Enforce low-sulphur fuel standards and Energy Efficiency Design for new ships

    IMO’s Initial GHG Strategy targets 50% reduction in ship emissions by 2050 (from 2008 levels).

    Promotes green shipping and alternative fuels (LNG, methanol, hydrogen), and carbon intensity.

    Prevents transfer of invasive aquatic species through Ballast Water Management Convention

    IMO’s Polar Code addresses safety and environmental protection in polar waters

    Role in Maritime Safety and Security

    IMO provides a legal and technical framework for cleaner and safer shipping.

    SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea, 1974) is IMO’s flagship convention, setting global ship design and emergency standards.

    STCW Convention (1978): Mandates uniform global training and certification for seafarers.

    ISPS Code (2002): Strengthens ship-port security against terrorism and piracy.

    IMO assists regional frameworks like Djibouti Code of Conduct (Somalia Basin) and ReCAAP (Asia) to combat piracy.

    Introduced e-navigation and Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) to improve real-time communication.

    Challenges

    Weak Enforcement: IMO relies on flag states’ compliance.

    Developing countries face technological and financial limitations for meeting emission targets.

    Emerging Threats: Cybersecurity and illegal fishing.

    Slow Decision-Making due to consensus-based model.

    Climate-Trade Dilemma: Balancing decarbonization with global trade competitiveness remains difficult.

    Recently, negotiations on the net zero framework have been adjourned for a year after opposition from the US and Saudi Arabia.

    Way Forward

    Stronger Monitoring Mechanisms through real-time tracking.

    Capacity Building of developing nations under a “Common but Differentiated Responsibility” framework.

    Strengthening R&D : green shipping corridors, hydrogen fuel, and maritime innovation hubs

    Global Cooperation among IMO, UNEP, UNDP, and regional maritime bodies like IORA

    As seas sustain both life and livelihood, global cooperation under IMO’s leadership is essential to achieve a safe, secure, and sustainable ocean future.

  • Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security’. Evaluate the effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and its associated bodies in addressing and mitigating this threat at the international level.

    Terrorism refers to the use of violence or threat to create fear and achieve political, ideological, or religious objectives by targeting civilians and governments.

    Terrorism as a Threat to Global Peace and Security

    Non-traditional global security challenge undermining state sovereignty, human rights, and economic stability.

    Evolving nature – cross-border networks, online radicalization, financing through illicit trade, and use of emerging technologies (drones, crypto-assets).

    Threats

    Economic – Terrorism and organised crime linkage. Eg- role of D-Company in Bombay Blasts 1993

    Bioterrorism – Eg- use of chemical weapons in Syria

    State sponsored terrorism – Eg- Pakistan

    Cyber terrorism – Eg- online radicalization by ISIS

    Regional Instability – Eg- Taliban in Afghanistan

    United Nations Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and Associated Bodies

    Established under UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001) after 9/11.

    CTC’s mandate: Enhance state co-operation and capacity building to deal with global terror

    Associated Bodies:

    CTED (Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate): Provides technical assistance to member states.

    UNOCT (UN Office of Counter-Terrorism): Coordinates UN counter-terror programs.

    FATF : Monitors terror financing and money laundering globally.

    Positive Role

    Global Framework: Universal adoption of Resolution 1373, creating a global legal framework.

    Capacity Building: Support to developing states in border management, cyber surveillance, and financial tracking.

    Curbing Terror Financing: Criminalization of fund-raising and cross-border money flows.

    Information Sharing: Enhanced coordination among INTERPOL, UNODC, and regional organizations (ASEAN, AU, SAARC).

    1267 Sanctions Regime: Travel bans and arms embargoes on listed terrorist entities.

    Limitations

    No Universal Definition of Terrorism: Political differences hinder cohesive action.

    Enforcement Limitations: CTC cannot impose sanctions; compliance depends on state will.

    Selectivity and Geopolitics: Veto politics within UNSC prioritizes strategic interests over global consensus. Eg- China blocking Masood Azhar terrorist designation

    TRF, designated a terrorist group by India, has not been formally designated as a terrorist organisation by the UNSC 1267 Sanctions Committee.

    Unequal Capacities: Developing nations lack financial and technological resources to meet obligations.

    Emerging Threats: Cyber-terrorism, lone-wolf attacks, and digital radicalization outpace global responses.

    Human Rights Concerns: Some counter-terror laws compromise due process and civil liberties.

    Lack of consensus – as per T.S. Tirumurti, the world has gone back to the era of “my terrorist” and “your terrorist” and consensus reached after 9/11, to fight terror comprehensively, has run its course.

    Way Forward

    3C Approach: Collaborate, Coordinate, and Cooperate among nations.

    UNSC Reforms: voice to Global South and democratization of decision-making.

    Early finalization of Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT)

    A comprehensive consensus-based approach on zero tolerance for corruption is needed to tackle the menace of terrorism.


  • “The reform process in the United Nations remains unresolved, because of the delicate imbalance of East and West and entanglement of the USA vs. Russo-Chinese alliance.” Examine and critically evaluate the East-West policy confrontations in this regard.

    “The UN was not created to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell.” – 2nd Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. However, in the 21st century, the reform process-particularly of the Security Council-remains stalled, leading to a crisis of confidence in the UN.

    Major reforms needed in the UN

    Security Council expansion to reflect 21st-century realities

    Veto-restraint or limitation – Eg- code of conduct.

    Greater regional representation – Eg- African Union and Latin America.

    Strengthening General Assembly role with clear mandate and resources.

    Peacekeeping reform – mandates, rules of engagement, training and rapid deployment.

    Financial autonomy for agencies like UNDP

    Secretariat reform – streamline bureaucracy and merit-based senior appointments.

    Transparency & accountability – stronger oversight and audit for agencies and peace operations.

    Reasons the reform process remains unresolved

    A. Delicate East-West imbalance

    Historic institutional lock-in – UNSC P5 structure reflects 1945 power distribution.

    The West (US, UK, France) advocates “value-based liberal multilateralism,” emphasizing democracy, human rights, and rule-based order.

    The East (Russia, China) emphasizes “sovereign equality, non-interference, and multipolarity.” Eg- criticism of “Responsibility to Protect (R2P)” as neo-interventionism

    Regional rivalries – rival claims (Japan vs. China, India vs. Pakistan) block consensus on new permanent seats.

    B. Entanglement: USA vs. Russo-Chinese alignment

    P3 vs P2 divide over veto and reforms. Eg- Syria, Ukraine.

    P5 members resist reforms that could reduce their leverage.

    Security dilemmas and Great-power rivalry turns UN reform into a question of strategic advantage rather than institutional efficiency.

    C. Other decisive factors

    Charter rigidity – amendments need 2/3 members + P5 ratification.

    Bloc fragmentation – G4, African Union (Ezulwini), Uniting for Consensus dilute consensus

    Resource dependence – Eg- UN budget has been slashed by 15% in 2026 (from USD 3.7 billion to USD 3.2 billion) as the US, China, Russia failed to complete their payments.

    Proliferation of parallel forums like BRICS, G20, SCO provide alternative platforms, reducing political pressure for UN reform.

    Way Forward

    Reforming the UN Security Council by increasing permanent membership and addressing the under-representation of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

    Adopt a “two-tier” membership model (permanent without veto) as an interim compromise (Kofi Annan’s proposal, 2005).

    Empower the UNGA to act when the Security Council is paralyzed – via the Uniting for Peace Resolution (1950).

    Rationalization of the Veto System

    France-Mexico Initiative (2015): Voluntary veto restraint during mass atrocities.

    Accountability Proposal by ACT Group (27 countries): P5 must justify veto use before the General Assembly.

    Financial and Bureaucratic Reforms

    Diversify funding base to reduce donor dominance.

    Introduce independent audit mechanisms for UN agencies for transparency.

    Rationalize overlapping agencies (UNDP, UNEP, WHO) to ensure resource efficiency.

    Establish a UN Accountability Commission to monitor performance and corruption within UN bodies.

    As UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres put it, we can’t create a future fit for our grandchildren with systems built for our grandparents. Thus, “reformed multilateralism” with the UN at its core is essential.

  • Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) Report by World Bank

    Why in the News?

    The World Bank’s November 2025 Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) Report says India must deepen financial reforms and boost private capital to reach its $30 trillion economy goal by 2047.

    What is the Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) Report?

    • Overview: It is a joint evaluation by the IMF and World Bank under the Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), launched in 1999 to review a country’s financial stability and institutional soundness.
    • Objective: Assesses the resilience, inclusiveness, and stability of the financial system, analysing how well it supports sustainable and equitable growth.
    • Scope: Covers banks, NBFCs, insurance, capital markets, and payment systems, along with regulation, supervision, and crisis management frameworks.
    • Methodology: Uses stress tests, policy diagnostics, and supervisory assessments to evaluate financial soundness and regulatory effectiveness.
    • Frequency: Conducted every 5–7 years, tracking policy reforms and emerging risks in both advanced and emerging economies.

    Key Highlights: India’s FSA Report 2025

    • Improved Stability: Found India’s financial system more diversified, inclusive, and resilient than in 2017, aided by regulatory reforms.
    • Reform Success: Credited India for recovering from the 2010s banking crisis and COVID-19 shocks through RBI’s tighter supervision of banks and NBFCs.
    • Regulatory Strengthening: Praised the extension of RBI’s authority over cooperative banks and scale-based regulation for NBFCs.
    • Digital Financial Inclusion: Highlighted India’s UPI, Aadhaar, and Jan Dhan ecosystem as global benchmarks for financial access and gender inclusion.
    • Capital Market Expansion: Reported capital markets’ size rising from 144% to 175% of GDP since 2017, driven by investor confidence and strong infrastructure.
    • Policy Recommendations: Advised improving credit-risk management, developing conduct-risk oversight for mutual funds, and empowering self-regulatory bodies.
    • Private Capital Mobilization: Urged creation of credit-enhancement and securitization platforms to attract global long-term investors.
    • Strategic Vision: Emphasized that continued reforms, deeper markets, and financial integration are essential to achieving India’s $30 trillion economy goal by 2047.
    [UPSC 2015] Which one of the following issues the ‘Global Economic Prospects’ report periodically?
    Options:
    (a) The Asian Development Bank
    (b) The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
    (c) The US Federal Reserve Bank
    (d) The World Bank*

     

  • Bangladesh’s accession to the UN Water Convention

    Why in the News?

    In 2025, Bangladesh became the first South Asian nation to join the UN Water Convention (Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes).

    About UN Water Convention:

    • Overview: Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in Helsinki (1992) and enforced in 1996 under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
    • Globalisation: Originally regional (Europe, Central Asia); opened to all UN Member States in 2016 after a 2013 amendment, becoming a global treaty for transboundary water governance.
    • Objective: Promotes sustainable management of shared water resources and conflict prevention through cooperative mechanisms.
    • Key Goals: Implements SDG-6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG-16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) via equitable water sharing and joint management.
    • Obligations for Parties:
      • Prevent and reduce transboundary pollution and unsustainable extraction.
      • Use shared waters equitably and reasonably.
      • Coordinate national and transboundary water management policies.
      • Establish joint bodies or commissions for shared basins.
    • Institutional Mechanism: Managed by the UNECE Secretariat, which organises meetings, facilitates implementation, and promotes basin-level cooperation among signatories.
    • Legal Character: Functions as a framework convention, complementing rather than replacing bilateral treaties (e.g., Indus Waters Treaty, Ganga Treaty).
    • Significance: Serves as a legal and institutional mechanism for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), regional peacebuilding, and climate-resilient governance.
    • Related Instruments: Inspired the UN Watercourses Convention (1997); both operate in complementary scopes within international water law.

    Why did Bangladesh join (2025):

    • First in South Asia: Became the first South Asian nation to ratify the Convention amid escalating water stress and climate vulnerability.
    • Hydrological Dependence: Over 90% of river inflows come from outside Bangladesh, mainly India and China, making Dhaka highly vulnerable to upstream interventions.
    • Upstream Projects: Concerns over China’s Motuo Hydropower Project (Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra) and India’s unresolved Teesta water-sharing dispute drove the decision.
    • Environmental Risks: 60% of population exposed to floods; half live in drought-prone areas, heightening need for cooperative governance.
    • Legal Context: Bangladesh’s 2019 High Court ruling granting rivers legal personhood reinforced its institutional focus on water rights.
    • Strategic Motivation: Seeks global legal recourse, access to data-sharing mechanisms, and international funding for climate adaptation and water security.

    Implications for India:

    • Shift from Bilateralism: India prefers bilateral river treaties (e.g., Indus, Ganga). Bangladesh’s multilateral engagement introduces scope for third-party mediation, contrary to India’s stance.
    • Ganga Treaty Renewal (2026): Bangladesh may invoke “equitable utilisation” to seek a higher share of Ganga waters under Convention norms.
    • Teesta River Pressure: The stalled Teesta agreement could face renewed international pressure, citing fairness and sustainability principles.
    • Regional Domino Effect: Likely to motivate Nepal and Bhutan to join, potentially transforming South Asia’s hydro-diplomatic architecture.
    • Strategic Concerns: Bangladesh’s simultaneous trilateral cooperation with China and Pakistan raises apprehensions of a Beijing-influenced hydro-bloc.

  • [24th October 2025] The Hindu Oped: The UN matters, as a symbol of possibility

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] The reform process in the United Nations remains unaccomplished because of the delicate imbalance of East and West and entanglement of the USA vs. Russo-Chinese alliance. Examine and critically evaluate the East-West policy confrontations in this regard.

    Linkage: UN is an important and recurring UPSC theme, often asked through its agencies and reform debates. This question is crucial as it probes the East–West power imbalance that hinders UN reform, echoing the article’s call for a more representative global order.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The article reviews the United Nations (UN) at 80 years, analysing its evolution, global role, and urgent need for institutional reform. It explores India’s position on UNSC restructuring, challenges of multilateralism, and the UN’s normative impact on global governance. For UPSC aspirants, the theme directly links with GS Paper II, international institutions, global order, and India’s diplomacy.

    Introduction

    Formed after World War II to preserve peace and promote human dignity, the UN evolved from a Cold War arena to a forum for cooperative problem-solving. The institution remains indispensable but requires deep reform to stay relevant in a multipolar and interconnected world.

    Reforming the UN: Adapting to a Shifting Global Order

    1. Foundational Context: Established in 1945 as a peace mechanism ensuring collective security, equality of states, and global legal order
    2. Changing Landscape: Transitioned from bipolarity (US–USSR) to unipolarity and now multipolarity marked by fragmented alliances and transnational threats such as climate change and cyber warfare.
    3. Institutional Lag: UNSC composition reflects post-1945 power hierarchy. Exclusion of emerging powers, India, Japan, Germany, Brazil, South Africa, undermines legitimacy and efficiency.
    4. Legitimacy and Representation: Outdated representation erodes the Council’s credibility, weakening enforcement capacity and consensus-building.

    UN’s Humanitarian and Normative Relevance

    1. Humanitarian Operations: UNHCR, WFP, and UNICEF deliver critical relief during conflicts and disasters, providing food, shelter, and protection.
    2. Peacekeeping Mandate: Blue Helmets ensure limited stability in fragile regions, sustaining fragile ceasefires and aiding post-conflict recovery.
    3. Norm Creation: UN conventions and declarations define global standards for human rights, gender equality, and sustainable development.
      The SDGs (2015) frame a universal agenda for inclusive and sustainable growth.
    4. Symbolic Value: Represents a global forum for dialogue, ensuring that multilateralism remains the default mechanism for peace and justice.

    Institutional Weaknesses and Reform Imperatives

    1. Erosion of Liberal Multilateralism: Rising nationalism and protectionism weaken commitment to collective decision-making.
    2. Structural Constraints: Permanent members’ veto power perpetuates paralysis in humanitarian crises.
    3. Financial Fragility: Budgetary shortfalls from delayed dues (notably by major contributors) constrain operational capacity and staffing.
    4. Operational Agility: Requires digitisation, decentralised response mechanisms, and enhanced decision-making authority at field levels.

    India’s Strategic Position in Global Governance

    1. India’s Credentials: World’s largest democracy, major troop-contributor to peacekeeping missions, and growing economic power.
    2. UNSC Reform Advocacy: Demands structural reform ensuring equitable and inclusive representation of developing nations.
    3. Strategic Autonomy: Follows independent policy avoiding bloc alignment while protecting regional and developmental interests.
    4. Vision for Reform: Supports dignity-based multilateralism ensuring sovereignty, cooperation, and equity among nations.

    Mandate for Renewal and Reform

    1. Council Reconfiguration: Expands permanent and non-permanent seats to reflect current geopolitical realities.
    2. Institutional Agility: Enhances crisis responsiveness through digital integration, rapid funding, and empowered missions.
    3. Moral Authority: Restores credibility by reaffirming adherence to international law and ethical neutrality in decision-making.
    4. Member-State Commitment: Ensures predictable funding and sustained political backing from member nations to strengthen UN institutions.

    Conclusion

    The UN remains a vital, evolving institution balancing ideals with realpolitik. Its effectiveness depends on reform, representation, and renewed moral purpose. Relevance in the 21st century rests on its ability to become more inclusive, responsive, and legitimate.

  • UN Global Geospatial Information Management for Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP)

    Why in the News?

    India has been elected as Co-Chair of the Regional Committee of the United Nations Global Geospatial Information Management for Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP) for a three-year term till 2028.

    About UN-GGIM-Asia and the Pacific (UN-GGIM-AP):

    • Objective: Maximises social, economic, and environmental benefits of geospatial data through regional collaboration, innovation, and policy harmonisation.
    • Overview: It is one of the five regional committees under the UN Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM).
    • Function: Serves as the highest inter-governmental platform in the region for joint decision-making on geospatial data generation, governance, and utilisation.
    • Mandate: Coordinates geospatial policy, promotes data standardisation, and supports applications in sustainable development, disaster management, and environmental monitoring.
    • Establishment: Formed in 1995 as the Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific (PCGIAP); rebranded in 2012 following UN-GGIM’s global launch in 2011.
    • Membership: Comprises 56 national geospatial agencies from across the Asia-Pacific region.
    • Secretariat: Hosted by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) since 2018, providing institutional and technical support.

    India’s Role and Significance:

    • Leadership Role: India elected Co-Chair (2025–2028), reflecting global recognition of its geospatial governance and digital mapping expertise.
    • Strategic Influence: Strengthens India’s position in regional policy formation, data ethics, and standardisation frameworks.
    • Policy Alignment: Complements India’s National Geospatial Policy 2022, Digital India, and PM GatiShakti National Master Plan initiatives.
    • Regional Contribution: India to lead capacity-building, data interoperability, and open-access frameworks for disaster management and climate resilience.
    • Institutional Integration: Links ISRO’s remote sensing and Survey of India’s ground mapping to regional development goals.
    • Global Impact: Positions India as a knowledge hub in geospatial innovation and ensures its active role in defining global spatial data standards for sustainable growth.
    [UPSC 2023]  Consider the following infrastructure sectors :

    1. Affordable housing 2. Mass rapid transport 3. Health care 4. Renewable energy

    On how many of the above does UNOPS Sustainable Investments in Infrastructure and Innovation (S3i) initiative focus for its investments?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) All four

     

  • UN to cut 25% of its global Peacekeeping Force   

    Why in the News?

    The UN will cut peacekeeping personnel by 25% across nine missions after U.S. funding dropped from $1 billion to $680 million under President Trump’s “America First” policy.

    US and Peacekeeping Funding Dynamics:

    • The US and China together contribute nearly 50% of the UN’s peacekeeping budget.
    • The U.S. outlined its new commitment of $680 million, marking a 32% decrease from last year’s payment.
    • A senior UN official confirmed that China has pledged to pay its full contribution by the end of 2025, offsetting some of the financial shortfall.

    Implications of Funding Cut:

    • The withdrawal of peacekeepers will leave several fragile regions exposed to renewed instability, especially in Africa and the Middle East.
    • The cuts signal a shift toward selective, donor-driven peacekeeping, prioritising geopolitical interests over collective international responsibility.
    • For the UN, the challenge lies in maintaining operational credibility and protecting civilian populations amid reduced resources.

    About the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission:

    • Overview: UN Peacekeeping is a collective international mechanism established to maintain peace and security in conflict-affected regions under the leadership of the United Nations.
    • Personnel: Peacekeepers, known as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets, include military, police, and civilian members from contributing nations.
    • Origin: The idea arose after World War II with the formation of the UN in 1945, marking a new era in global conflict resolution.
    • First Mission (1948): The United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) was deployed after the Arab–Israeli War to monitor ceasefires, setting the template for future operations.
    • Evolution: Over time, missions expanded to cover civil wars, humanitarian crises, and post-conflict reconstruction across Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
    • Core Principles:
      1. Consent of the Parties
      2. Impartiality
      3. Non-use of Force (except in self-defence or mandate defence)
    • Deployment: Missions require the consent of key conflict parties and are authorised by the UN Security Council.
    • Functions: Include monitoring ceasefires, disarmament, protection of civilians, humanitarian assistance, promotion of human rights, and support for democratic governance.
    • Finance: United States (26.95%)> China (18.69%)> Japan (8.03%) > Germany (6.11%) > United Kingdom (5.36%) > France (5.29%).
    • India’s Contribution:
      • Major Contributor: India ranks among the largest troop contributors since the inception of UN peacekeeping.
      • Participation Record: Contributed over 1.95 lakh troops, served in 49 missions, and made 168 supreme sacrifices in service.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
    Country Reason for being in the news
    1. Argentina: Worst economic crisis
    2. Sudan: War between the country’s regular army and
    paramilitary forces
    3. Turkey: Rescinded its membership of NATO
    How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
    (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

     

  • Highlights of the Global Innovation Index, 2025

    Why in the News?

    The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has released the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2025.

    About the Global Innovation Index (GII):

    • Overview: Annual ranking of 139 economies by their innovation capacity and success.
    • Publishers: Jointly by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
    • Origin: First published in 2007.
    • Indicators: Uses 80+ metrics across 7 pillars.
    • Structure:
      • Innovation Input Sub-Index: Institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market sophistication, business sophistication.
      • Innovation Output Sub-Index: Knowledge and technology outputs, creative outputs.
    • Purpose: Helps governments evaluate how effectively R&D, education, and infrastructure are translated into innovation outcomes.

    Key Highlights of GII 2025:

    • Global R&D growth: Slowed to 2.9% (2024) and 2.3% (2025 projection), down from 4.4% earlier; lowest since the 2010 financial crisis.
    • Top Performers: Switzerland (1st), Sweden (2nd), United States (3rd), followed by Republic of Korea, Singapore, United Kingdom, Finland, Netherlands, Denmark, and China (10th).
    • China: Surpassed Switzerland in knowledge and technology outputs; 2nd highest in R&D expenditure; world leader in patent filings.
    • Regional Trends: Europe dominates with 15 of top 25 economies; Southeast, East Asia and Oceania (SEAO) region has 6 economies in top 25.
    • India: Ranked 38th globally with a score of ~40.5; top among lower-middle income countries and in Central & Southern Asia.
      • Strengths: Knowledge and technology outputs (22nd), market sophistication, and human capital and research.
      • Weaknesses: Business sophistication, infrastructure, and institutions remain lagging.
    [UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:

    Options:

    (a) International Monetary Fund  (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development  (c) World Economic Forum * (d) World Bank