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GS Paper: GS1

  • Karnataka Land Revenue Amendment and Jamma Bane System in Coorg

    Why in the News?

    The Karnataka government has amended its land revenue law to modernise the Jamma Bane land record system in Coorg. The Karnataka Land Revenue (Second Amendment) Act, 2025 received assent from Governor Thawarchand Gehlot on January 7, 2025.

    About Jamma Bane Lands

    • A distinct land tenure system prevalent only in Kodagu district
    • The word Jamma means hereditary
    • Lands were granted between 1600 and 1800
      • By erstwhile Coorg kings
      • Later by British administration
    • Granted in return for military service
    • Associated closely with the Kodava community

    Nature of Jamma Bane Holdings

    • Consist of two land types
      • Wetlands used for paddy cultivation
      • Forested highlands converted into coffee plantations
    • Ownership recorded in the name of the original pattedar
    • Names of successors added but primary ownership never changed
    • Resulted in
      • No clear title for current owners
      • Difficulty in sale or purchase of land
      • Problems in securing bank loans
      • Frequent inheritance disputes
    [2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements: 

    1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding

    2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised

    3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Are India’s small towns being increasingly urbanised?

    Why in the News?

    India still focuses its urban future on megacities, even though only about 500 towns are large cities, while nearly 9,000 are small towns, most with populations below one lakh. Earlier, urbanisation was led mainly by metros, but this pattern is now changing. Small towns are increasingly absorbing surplus labour, migrant workers, and consumption activities as metros face high land prices, stressed infrastructure, and rising living costs. This shift reflects not inclusive growth, but the spread of urban crisis to smaller towns, with serious economic and social consequences.

    How have India’s small towns proliferated since the 1970s?

    1. Metropolitan Concentration: Organised capital accumulation during the 1970s-1990s prioritised large cities as centres of industry, infrastructure, and state investment.
    2. Labour Absorption: Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and later Bengaluru and Hyderabad absorbed surplus labour and expanded consumption.
    3. Spatial Fix: Metros functioned as spatial fixes for capitalism by enabling accumulation through land, infrastructure, and labour concentration.

    Why are India’s metros facing a crisis of over-accumulation today?

    1. Land Detachment: Land prices have become disconnected from productive economic use.
    2. Infrastructure Stress: Urban systems are stretched beyond functional limits.
    3. Cost Escalation: Rising housing and living costs have become unaffordable for working groups.
    4. Accumulation Limits: Metros have exhausted their capacity to absorb surplus capital and labour efficiently.

    Why have small towns emerged as new sites of urbanisation?

    1. Capital Redirection: Small towns offer cheaper land and lower entry barriers for capital.
    2. Labour Availability: They absorb migrants displaced from metros and rural youth exiting agrarian livelihoods.
    3. Functional Integration: Towns such as Sattenapalle (Andhra Pradesh), Dhamtari (Chhattisgarh), Barabanki (Uttar Pradesh), Hassan (Karnataka), Bongaigaon (Assam), and Una (Himachal Pradesh) now act as logistics nodes, agro-processing hubs, warehouse towns, service centres, and consumption markets.

    How are small towns embedded within the urban process?

    1. Urban Continuum: Small towns operate fully within urban capitalist systems rather than existing as rural-urban intermediaries.
    2. Regulatory Gaps: Weaker regulation and minimal political scrutiny facilitate capital expansion.
    3. Cost Arbitrage: Lower land prices and pliable labour make small towns attractive for accumulation under stress conditions.

    Are small towns a better alternative to metropolitan urbanisation?

    1. No Emancipatory Promise: The article rejects the notion that small towns ensure inclusive or equitable growth.
    2. Urbanisation of Poverty: What unfolds is the relocation of rural deprivation into urban spaces.
    3. Informal Labour Dominance: Construction workers without contracts, women in home-based work, and youth in platform economies face insecurity and lack of social protection.
    4. Emerging Hierarchies: Towns such as Bhadol (Madhya Pradesh) and Raichur (Karnataka) show consolidation of power among real estate brokers, contractors, micro-financiers, and local intermediaries controlling land and labour.

    What does this reveal about India’s urban policy framework?

    1. Metro-Centric Bias: Flagship urban missions remain focused on large cities.
    2. Policy Failure: Small towns remain under-governed despite being central to contemporary urbanisation.
    3. Political Neglect: Absence of adequate scrutiny deepens informalisation and inequality.

    Conclusion

    India’s small towns are not emerging as alternatives to the metropolitan crisis but as its extension. They represent a new spatial frontier for capitalist accumulation under stress, marked by informal labour, weak regulation, and entrenched local hierarchies. Without policy recalibration, small-town urbanisation risks reproducing the very inequalities it was expected to resolve.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

    Linkage: The question examines structural drivers of rural-urban migration in developing countries. It connects with debates on metro-centric growth, over-accumulation, and the emerging role of small towns as secondary but constrained urban destinations.

  • Kathputli Art of Rajasthan 

    Why in the News?

    The traditional Kathputli art of Rajasthan, centred in Kathputli Nagar of Jaipur, highlights India’s rich intangible cultural heritage, where nearly 250 artisan families continue a centuries old puppet tradition amid challenges from modern entertainment.

    What is Kathputli?

    • Kathputli is one of India’s oldest folk puppet traditions
    • The word derives from
      • Kath meaning wood
      • Putli meaning doll
    • Puppets are string operated wooden figures with painted faces and colourful costumes

    Region and Community

    • Practised mainly in Rajasthan
    • Kathputli Nagar (Puppets Colony) in Jaipur is a major living hub
    • Craft is hereditary, passed down across generations within families

    Historical Significance

    • Traditionally performed by travelling storytellers
    • Used to narrate
      • Tales of Rajput kings and warriors
      • Folk legends and moral stories
    • Served as a mass communication medium before print and digital media

    Current Challenges

    • Competition from digital entertainment
    • Economic insecurity for artisans
    • Dependence on tourism and cultural events

    Prelims Pointers

    • Kathputli is a string puppet tradition
    • Originated in Rajasthan
    • Major hub is Kathputli Nagar, Jaipur
    • Puppets are made of wood and cloth
    • Historically used to narrate royal and folk tales
    [2024] Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO? 

    (a) Chhau dance 

    (b) Durga Puja 

    (c) Garba dance 

    (d) Kumbh Mela

  • Show Cause Notice on Bargi Dam 

    Why in the News?

    The National Dam Safety Authority issued a show cause notice to the Narmada Valley Development Authority over serious safety lapses at Bargi Dam.

    About Bargi Dam

    • A major multipurpose dam
    • Used for irrigation, drinking water supply, and hydroelectric power generation
    • Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh
    • Constructed on the Narmada River

    Historical Background

    • Built under the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • First completed major dam among the planned series on the Narmada in Madhya Pradesh
    • Became the foundation project for the state’s Narmada basin development strategy

    Key Features

    • 21 spillway gates: Regulate flood discharge and reservoir levels during heavy rainfall
    • Bargi Diversion Project: Canal network supplying irrigation to drought prone regions
    • Rani Avantibai Lodhi Sagar Project: Large scale storage and distribution system for irrigation and water supply
    • Large reservoir supporting: Drinking water, Hydropower, Fisheries and Tourism and recreation

    Significance

    • Provides drinking water to Jabalpur and nearby districts
    • Supports agriculture through assured irrigation
    • Contributes to electricity generation
    • Boosts regional development and eco tourism

    Institutional Context

    National Dam Safety Authority

    • Apex body under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Responsible for surveillance, inspection, and safety compliance of specified dams

    Narmada Valley Development Authority

    • Implements and manages projects under the Narmada basin
    • Responsible for operation and maintenance of dams like Bargi

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bargi Dam is on the Narmada River
    • Located in Madhya Pradesh
    • Part of the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • NDSA acts under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Spillway gates are crucial for flood control
    [2016] The Narmada river flows to the west, while most other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why? 

    1. It occupies a linear rift valley

    2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras

    3. The land slopes to the west from Central India

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None

  • Zehanpora Buddhist Site and Kashmir’s Ancient Buddhist Past  

    Why in the News?

    Archaeologists have unearthed ancient Buddhist stupas and settlement remains at Zehanpora in Baramulla, reviving Kashmir’s 2,000 year old Buddhist past. The breakthrough was aided by century old photographs preserved in a French museum, which guided modern excavations.

    About the Zehanpora Discovery

    • Location: Zehanpora village, Baramulla district, along the Jhelum River
    • Site lies on an ancient Silk Route corridor linking Kashmir to Central Asia and Kandahar
    • Excavations began in July 2025 after drone surveys, aerial mapping, and ground verification

    Key Archaeological Findings

    • Three Buddhist stupas
    • Urban type settlement complex likely including chaityas and viharas
    • Apsidal stupa architecture with pradakshina path
    • Kushan era artefacts
      • Pottery shards
      • Copper objects
      • Stone walls
    • Evidence of long term monastic and urban activity

    Historical Significance

    Gandhara Buddhist Network

    • Discovery firmly links Kashmir to the Gandhara Buddhist cultural network
    • Establishes Kashmir as a central hub of Buddhist learning, not a peripheral region
    • Demonstrates cultural and intellectual exchange between South Asia and Central Asia

    Chronological Context

    • Buddhist presence in Kashmir began during Ashoka’s reign (3rd century BCE)
    • Flourished under the Kushan Empire (1st to 3rd century CE)
    • Kushans promoted urbanisation, trade, and Buddhism

    Literary Corroboration

    • Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned entering Kashmir via the Silk Route
    • Zehanpora excavation provides material archaeological evidence supporting textual references

    Role of French Museum Photographs

    • In 2023, century old photographs showing three stupas in Baramulla were discovered
    • Images validated local archaeological hypotheses
    • Triggered systematic excavation and site identification

    Prelims Pointers

    • Zehanpora is located in Baramulla district
    • Site linked to Gandhara Buddhism
    • Artefacts belong mainly to Kushan period
    • Apsidal stupas allow circumambulatory worship
    • Discovery aided by foreign archival material
    [2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements: 

    1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin. 

    2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics

    3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition

    How many of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

  • How Haryana turned around sex ratio at birth, now close to national average

    Introduction

    Sex ratio at birth reflects deep-rooted social preferences, access to technology, and effectiveness of governance. Haryana’s demographic profile was historically distorted due to entrenched son preference and misuse of prenatal diagnostic technologies. The recent improvement indicates a shift driven by administrative vigilance, legal enforcement, and behavioural correction mechanisms, rather than mere awareness campaigns.

    Why in the News

    Haryana’s sex ratio at birth (SRB) rose to 923 females per 1,000 males in 2023, bringing the state close to the national average of 933. This marks a sharp reversal from its historical position among India’s worst-performing states. The improvement follows two decades of sustained interventions, including enforcement against illegal sex selection, medical monitoring, inter-departmental coordination, and district-level surveillance. The state also recorded its best SRB performance in five years, signalling structural rather than episodic change.

    How severe was Haryana’s demographic imbalance earlier?

    1. Historically low SRB: Haryana ranked among the worst Indian states during the 2000s due to female foeticide.
    2. Technology misuse: Easy access to ultrasound and weak regulation facilitated sex-selective abortions.
    3. Structural bias: Son preference reinforced by inheritance practices and patriarchal norms.
    4. National comparison: Haryana consistently performed below the national SRB average for years.

    What institutional measures drove the turnaround?

    1. Legal enforcement: Strict implementation of the (Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994, including registration checks and surprise inspections.
    2. Criminal accountability: Filing of over 1,375 FIRs against illegal practitioners since 2014.
    3. Administrative coordination: Weekly reviews involving health, police, and district administrations.
    4. Tracking mechanisms: Continuous monitoring of ultrasound centres and pregnancy outcomes.

    How did district-level governance contribute?

    1. District surveillance: Identification of high-risk districts and targeted enforcement.
    2. Best-performing districts: Panchkula, Jhajjar, and Rewari crossed 940 SRB.
    3. Worst-performing districts: Palwal, Faridabad, and Panipat remained below the state average, indicating uneven progress.
    4. Outcome-based reviews: Regular district rankings created competitive accountability.

    What role did monitoring of medical practices play?

    1. Ultrasound regulation: Tight scrutiny of ultrasound centres and equipment movement.
    2. Pregnancy audits: Tracking of repeat abortions and abnormal sex ratios at facility levels.
    3. Professional deterrence: Suspension and prosecution of erring doctors.
    4. Sustained vigilance: Monitoring continued even during COVID-19 disruptions.

    Why is this shift considered structurally significant?

    1. Consistency over time: Improvement sustained across multiple years rather than isolated spikes.
    2. Behavioural correction: Reduced acceptance of sex-selective practices at the community level.
    3. Policy credibility: Demonstrates effectiveness of law when combined with administrative resolve.
    4. Replication potential: Offers a governance model for other demographically stressed states.

    Value Addition: Sex Ratio at Birth in India 

    1. National SRB: Approximately 933 females per 1,000 males.
    2. Regional variation: Northern and north-western states historically record lower SRB.
    3. Underlying causes: Son preference, declining fertility, and access to diagnostic technology
    4. Policy instruments: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, PCPNDT Act, and conditional cash transfer schemes.
    5. Trend: Gradual national improvement, but inter-state disparities persist.

    Conclusion

    Haryana’s improvement in sex ratio at birth underscores that deep-rooted gender bias is not irreversible when governance moves beyond symbolic welfare to sustained enforcement and accountability. The experience demonstrates that demographic correction requires a long-term, law-driven, and institutionally coordinated approach, reinforcing that gender justice must be ensured at the earliest stage of life for social transformation to be durable.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] “Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu?

    Linkage: Persistent patriarchal attitudes, reflected in practices like female foeticide and skewed sex ratios at birth, show that women’s progress has not translated into social acceptance. Haryana’s SRB turnaround demonstrates that strict legal enforcement, behavioural regulation, and institutional accountability are critical interventions.

  • 1000 Years of Survival of Somnath Temple 

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister of India highlighted the thousand year survival of the Somnath Temple, marking 1,000 years since the 1026 CE attack by Mahmud of Ghazni.

    Somnath Temple

    • One of the 12 sacred Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva
    • Revered across Hindu tradition
    • Known as the Eternal Shrine due to repeated destruction and reconstruction

    Location

    • Prabhas Patan, near Veraval, Saurashtra region of Gujarat
    • Located on the Arabian Sea coast
    • At the Triveni Sangam of Kapila, Hiran, and Saraswati rivers

    Historical Significance

    Ancient Origins

    • Mentioned in Shiva Purana
    • Evidence of worship since antiquity
    • Multiple reconstructions in pre medieval times

    1026 CE Event

    • Temple attacked and plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni
    • Considered a major historical rupture in Indian history

    Medieval Period

    • Rebuilt by rulers such as Kumarapala of the Chaulukya dynasty
    • Reconstructed under Chudasama kings
    • Destroyed again during Sultanate invasions

    Symbol of Resilience

    • Historical records indicate the temple was destroyed six times
    • Rebuilt after every destruction
    • Became a symbol of civilisational continuity and faith

    Architectural Features

    • Built in Chaulukya or Solanki style
    • Prominent shikhara and richly carved stone walls
    • Garbhagriha houses the Jyotirlinga
    • Famous inscription stating no landmass lies between Somnath and the South Pole, symbolising cosmic alignment

    Modern Reconstruction

    Post Independence Revival

    • Reconstruction initiated in 1947
    • Led by Vallabhbhai Patel as a civilisational responsibility
    • Designed by architect Prabhashankar Sompura using traditional methods

    Inauguration

    • Inaugurated on 11 May 1951
    • By Rajendra Prasad
    • Despite the political debates of the period

    Present Management

    • Managed by the Somnath Trust
    • Trust is chaired by the Prime Minister of India
    [2022] The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple? 

    1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines. 

    2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni

    3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present-day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan. 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Savitribai Phule Birth Anniversary 

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister and several Union and State leaders paid tribute to Savitribai Phule on her birth anniversary, highlighting her role in education and social reform.

    Who was Savitribai Phule

    • Born in 1831 in Maharashtra
    • Social reformer, poet and educationist
    • Recognised as the first female teacher of modern India
    • Worked closely with her husband Jyotirao Phule

    Key Contributions

    • Established India’s first girls’ school in Pune in 1848
    • Pioneered education for women and marginalised communities
    • Actively opposed caste discrimination, untouchability and gender inequality
    • Promoted widow remarriage and shelter for destitute women
    • Believed education was the primary tool for social transformation

    Literary Contribution

    • Used poetry as a medium to spread ideas of equality, justice and rational thinking
    • Her writings criticised social orthodoxy and promoted human dignity

    Legacy and Significance

    • Laid the foundation for women’s education in India
    • Inspired later social reform and feminist movements
    • Symbol of social justice, inclusive education and empowerment

    Prelims Pointers

    • First girls’ school in India was started in Pune
    • Education and social equality were central to her reform agenda
    • Worked during the 19th century social reform movement in Maharashtra
    • Closely associated with anti caste and anti patriarchy movements
    [2016] Satya Shodhak Samaj organized 

    (a) a movement for upliftment of tribals in Bihar 

    (b) a temple-entry movement in Gujarat 

    (c) an anti-caste movement in Maharashtra 

    (d) a peasant movement in Punjab

  • [3rd January 2026] The Hindu OpED: Transforming a waste-ridden urban India

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?

    Linkage: The question aligns with India’s urban solid waste crisis, where poor segregation, limited municipal capacity, and weak recycling systems hinder safe disposal. The article’s focus on circular economy, waste-to-energy, and regulated toxic waste management directly addresses environmental pollution mitigation.

    Mentor’s comment

    Urban India is facing a structural waste management crisis that threatens environmental sustainability, public health, and economic efficiency. At COP30 UNFCCC, global consensus reinforced the circular economy as a growth pathway, placing Indian cities at the center of climate, resource, and governance reforms. This article examines the scale of India’s urban waste challenge, structural bottlenecks, and the urgent need to transition from linear waste disposal to circular urban management.

    Introduction

    India’s urbanisation has been rapid but uneven, producing clean enclaves alongside waste-ridden cities. Despite flagship programmes such as Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), urban waste management remains fragmented and inefficient. With waste volumes rising sharply and cities becoming hotspots of pollution and emissions, India must urgently adopt circular economy principles that minimise waste, recover resources, and integrate governance across sectors.

    Why in the News?

    At COP30 UNFCCC (BelĂŠm, November 2025), global leaders committed to a No Organic Waste, Now initiative and emphasised circularity as the pathway to inclusive growth and climate mitigation. Indian cities were explicitly urged to accelerate circular waste management. This marks a shift from traditional waste disposal approaches towards resource recovery, aligning climate commitments with urban governance reforms.

    Urban India and the Scale of the Waste Crisis

    Why is urban waste a growing structural challenge?

    1. Rapid urbanisation: Expanding cities generate waste volumes beyond municipal handling capacity.
    2. Environmental impact: Indian cities underperform global standards in clean air, water, and sanitation.
    3. Emission burden: Cities projected to generate 165 million tonnes of waste annually by 2030, emitting 41 million tonnes of greenhouse gases.
    4. Future risk: Waste burden projected to rise to 436 million tonnes by 2050 with urban population growth.
    5. Economic and health costs: Unmanaged waste contributes to disease, pollution, and productivity loss.

    From Linear Disposal to Circular Management

    Why must India move away from linear waste systems?

    1. Linear model limitation: Disposal-focused systems treat waste as an endpoint.
    2. Circular opportunity: Treats waste as a resource for energy, materials, and inputs.
    3. Policy objective: Minimising waste generation while maximising recovery of energy and materials.
    4. Feasibility: SBM Urban 2.0 aims for Garbage-Free Cities (GFC) by 2026, making circularity operational rather than aspirational.

    Plastic, Organic, and Construction Waste: Sectoral Realities

    How significant is organic waste in municipal streams?

    1. Waste composition: Over 50% of municipal waste is organic.
    2. Processing options: Composting and bio-methanation from household to large-scale plants.
    3. Energy recovery: Compressed Biogas (CBG) plants generate fuel and power.
    4. Efficiency gains: Complete combustion can yield energy equal to one-third of waste volume.

    Why is plastic waste the most difficult category?

    1. Environmental risk: Plastic poses long-term ecosystem and human health hazards.
    2. Segregation dependency: Recycling efficiency depends on source-level segregation.
    3. Infrastructure gap: Material Recovery Facilities require continuous upgrading.
    4. Market constraint: Plastic-derived fuels and cement inputs lack mature market linkages.

    Why is construction and demolition (C&D) waste a major blind spot?

    1. Volume: Generates ~12 million tonnes annually, concentrated in major cities.
    2. Cause: Unplanned construction in fast-growing urban centres.
    3. Disposal practice: Frequent roadside and vacant land dumping.
    4. Recycling gap: Existing capacity insufficient relative to waste generation.
    5. Resource loss: Reusable materials remain unsegregated and unprocessed.

    Water, Sanitation, and Circularity Linkages

    How does waste management affect urban water security?

    1. Causal linkage: Water security depends on treated wastewater and faecal sludge management.
    2. Policy integration: AMRUT and SBM focus on wastewater treatment and reuse.
    3. Resource constraint: India’s water stock insufficient to meet future urban demand.
    4. Circular solution: Recycling and reuse emerge as the only sustainable pathway.

    Governance and Implementation Challenges

    What hinders circular waste implementation in cities?

    1. Segregation gaps: Weak household-level compliance.
    2. Logistics inefficiency: Poor collection, aggregation, and processing chains.
    3. Market constraints: Recycled products face quality and demand limitations.
    4. Testing shortfalls: Inadequate monitoring and certification systems.
    5. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Incomplete integration with construction and building laws.
    6. Institutional fragmentation: Weak inter-departmental coordination.
    7. Municipal capacity: Financial and technical resource shortages.

    Regulatory and Policy Interventions

    What regulatory steps are being strengthened?

    1. C&D Waste Management Rules, 2016: Levy charges on bulk waste generators.
    2. Environment (Construction & Demolition) Waste Rules, 2025: Enforced from April 1, 2026.
    3. State responsibility: Waste management, sanitation, and water under State List.
    4. Reuse mandate: Encourages use of treated wastewater in agriculture, horticulture, and industry.

    Behavioural and Economic Dimensions

    Why citizen participation is critical to circularity?

    1. Behavioural shift: Reuse requires conscious consumption changes.
    2. Profit clarity: Citizens and enterprises need economic incentives.
    3. Hierarchy challenge: Reduce-Reuse-Recycle difficult in consumer-driven markets.
    4. Technology role: Recycling supported by innovation and private enterprise.
    5. Urban transformation: Circularity enables cities to move away from landfill dependence.

    Conclusion

    India’s urban waste crisis is not merely a sanitation issue but a governance, resource, and climate challenge. Circular waste management offers a pathway to reduce emissions, conserve resources, and strengthen urban resilience. Achieving this requires regulatory enforcement, infrastructure investment, market creation for recycled products, and sustained citizen participation. Circularity must transition from policy intent to urban practice.

  • Narsapuram Lace Craft

    Why in the News? 

    The Prime Minister Narendra Modi highlighted Narsapuram Lace Craft in Man Ki Baat as a model of women led economic empowerment and cultural continuity. The craft’s Geographical Indication tag has renewed national attention.

    What it is

    • A traditional handmade crochet lace craft
       • Fine threads are transformed into intricate lace using a single crochet hook
       • Known for high precision, patience and skill

    Region

    • Andhra Pradesh
       • Districts: West Godavari and Dr B R Ambedkar Konaseema
       • Key centres: Narsapur, Palacole, Razole, Amalapuram

    History

    • Introduced in 1844 by European missionaries who trained local women
       • Withstood famines and economic depressions
       • Sustained women’s livelihoods across generations
       • Evolved into a globally recognised hand crafted textile tradition

    Key Characteristics

    • Raw materials: Fine cotton threads, also silk, rayon and synthetic yarns
       • Tools: Crochet hooks of different sizes for varied textures
       • Technique: Manual looping and interlocking of stitches without machinery
       • Design motifs: Floral, paisley and geometric patterns inspired by nature
       • Products: Garments, doilies, bedspreads, table linen, cushion covers, stoles and wall hangings

    Significance

    • Provides regular income to thousands of women
       • Strengthens women’s role as primary earners in households
       • Preserves an indigenous textile heritage
       • GI tag enhances market recognition and cultural protection

    Prelims Pointers

    • Type: Handmade crochet lace
       • Origin year: 1844
       • Nature: Women centric livelihood craft
       • Legal status: GI tagged traditional craft
       • Cultural relevance: Godavari region heritage
    [2018] Consider the following pairs: 

        Craft                        :  Heritage of 

    1. Puthukkuli shawls : Tamil Nadu 

    2. Sujni embroidery : Maharashtra 

    3. Uppada Jamdani saris : Karnataka 

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3