The 29th COP to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will begin on November 11, 2024, in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.
As global leaders gather near the Caspian Sea, the surrounding region of the South Caucasus faces significant climate challenges.
Key Areas at Risk:
(1) Regional/transboundary areas:
Northern Armenia and southern Georgia
North-west Azerbaijan and north-east Georgia (Alazani/Ganykh river basin)
(2) Within countries:
Yerevan and Ararat Valley (Armenia)
Lake Sevan (Armenia)
Kura-Ara(k)s lowlands (Azerbaijan)
Baku and Absheron peninsula (Azerbaijan)
Adjara and the Black Sea coast (Georgia)
Tbilisi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, and Kakheti regions (Georgia)
AboutSouth Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia):
Details
Location
South of the Greater Caucasus Mountains, bordered by Russia (north), Turkey and Iran (south), between the Black Sea (west) and Caspian Sea (east).
Countries
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia; includes disputed territories like Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh), Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.
Mountains
Lesser Caucasus Mountains (up to 3,000m); includes the Zangezur Range, Meskheti Range, and Armenian Highlands.
Seas
Between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; Absheron Peninsula (Azerbaijan) extends into Caspian Sea, rich in oil.
Rivers and Lakes
Major rivers: KuraRiver (Georgia & Azerbaijan) and Aras River (Armenia & Azerbaijan). Key lake: Lake Sevan (Armenia).
Climate
Continental climate: hot summers and cold winters;
Subtropical climate along Georgia’s Black Sea coast;
Semi-arid to desert climate near Caspian Sea, especially Azerbaijan.
Natural Resources
Rich in oil and natural gas, particularly in Azerbaijan; critical hub for energy pipelines like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline.
Geopolitical Importance
Strategic transit route for energy resources to Europe; region of geopolitical tensions due to conflicts (Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Abkhazia).
Hurricane Milton made landfall near Siesta Key, Florida, USA which caused heavy rain, flooding and strong winds resulting in significant damage and loss of lives.
Hurricane Milton: Origin and Causes
Hurricane Milton was a powerful storm that made landfall in Florida near Siesta Key, causing widespread damage.
It was a Category 5 hurricane with wind speeds of 285 km/h, making it one of the strongest hurricanes ever recorded in the Atlantic Ocean.
It originated in the Gulf of Mexico, an area connected to the Atlantic Ocean.
Why it was an unusual storm?
Milton went from a Category 1 storm to a Category 5 storm in just 12 hours.
Usually, hurricanes intensify at a slower pace, but Milton’s wind speeds increased by 145 km/hin one day, which is very rare.
Sea-surface temperatures of 31°C were much higher than the 26°C needed for hurricane formation.
This excess heat allowed Milton to intensify quickly.
Most hurricanes follow a westward path, but Milton moved eastward and made landfall on the western coast of Florida.
According to scientists, very few hurricanes have taken this path before.
Wind shear is a change in wind speed and direction that can weaken hurricanes.
In Milton’s case, there was almost no wind shear, allowing the storm to grow stronger without interference.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10ºC lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
After decades of steady increases in human life expectancy due to advancements in medicine and technology, recent trends suggest that these gains are starting to slow down, according to a new study.
The Key Findings of the Study:
Slowing of Life Expectancy Gains: After decades of rising life expectancy due to medical and technological advancements, the pace of these increases has slowed significantly. The study suggests that human life expectancy has nearly plateaued, with dramatic extensions unlikely without breakthroughs in anti-aging medicine.
Regional Analysis: The study analyzed life expectancy data between 1990 and 2019 from regions with the longest life spans, such as Australia, Japan, and Sweden.
Even in these regions, life expectancy increased by only 6.5 years on average over the 29-year period.
Challenges of Radical Life Extension: Researchers found that while people live longer due to improvements in healthcare, the human body’s aging process—marked by the declining function of internal organs—limits life span. Even if diseases like cancer and heart disease are eliminated, aging itself remains a barrier.
Low Probability of Reaching 100: The study estimates that girls born in the longest-living regions have only a 5.3% chance of reaching 100 years, while boys have a 1.8% chance. Thus, despite medical advancements, reaching 100 years remains rare without interventions to slow aging.
Aging as the Primary Barrier: Researchers argue that extending average life expectancy dramatically will require breakthroughs that slow the aging process rather than just better treatments for common diseases.
Some experimental drugs, like metformin, have shown potential in animal studies, but human trials are needed.
India’s Present Status:
Lower Life Expectancy: As of 2024, India’s average life expectancy is around 70 years, In contrast, countries like Japan and Switzerland boast life expectancies exceeding 83 years.
Healthcare Advancements: While India has made significant progress in combating infectious diseases and improving maternal and child health, chronic illnesses and lifestyle diseases (such as heart disease and diabetes) are emerging as leading causes of death.
What Needs to Be Done: (Way forward)
Focus on Anti-Aging Research: India must invest in research on aging and regenerative medicine, exploring ways to slow down the aging process rather than just treating diseases.
Strengthening Healthcare Systems: Expanding access to quality healthcare and preventive medicine to manage age-related diseases can enhance the quality of life in later years, even if life expectancy does not rise dramatically.
Policy Support for Longevity Research: There is a need for policies supporting medical research into life-extension technologies, including drug trials and clinical studies focused on aging.
Public Health Interventions: Improved public health measures targeting lifestyle diseases (obesity, diabetes) and better management of age-related conditions can enhance life span and overall well-being.
Mains PYQ:
Q The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet them? (UPSC IAS/2022)
On October 2, the Washington DC-based United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) released a country update on India, highlighting what it described as “collapsing conditions for religious freedom.”
Mandate of the USCIRF
Monitoring Religious Freedom: The USCIRF is tasked with monitoring the universal right to freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) in countries outside the U.S. This includes assessing violations based on international human rights standards, particularly Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Annual Reports: The commission produces annual reports that evaluate religious freedom conditions and recommend countries for designation as “Countries of Particular Concern” (CPC) or for inclusion on the “Special Watch List” (SWL).
Policy Recommendations: USCIRF provides policy recommendations to the President, Secretary of State, and Congress regarding actions to address violations of religious freedom.
How does the UNSCIRF designate a country as a ‘Country of Particular concern’?
Criteria for CPC Designation: A country is designated as a CPC if it engages in or tolerates “systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations” of religious freedom. This includes severe actions such as torture, prolonged detention without charges, and other flagrant denials of basic rights.
Recommendation Process: The USCIRF assesses countries based on its findings and recommends those that meet the CPC criteria. The U.S. Secretary of State ultimately decides whether to accept these recommendations and designate countries accordingly.
How has the Indian government reacted to the report?
Rejection of Findings: The Indian government has strongly rejected the USCIRF’s report, labeling it as biased and politically motivated. Officials argue that the commission misrepresents facts regarding religious freedom in India.
Defense of Policies: The Ministry of External Affairs stated that India is committed to protecting the rights and freedoms of all its citizens, regardless of their faith, and urged USCIRF to refrain from agenda-driven narratives.
Way forward:
Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: India should proactively engage with international bodies like USCIRF to address concerns, clarify its stance, and present factual data on religious freedom, fostering mutual understanding.
Strengthen Domestic Protections: India should reinforce legal and institutional frameworks to safeguard minority rights and religious freedoms, ensuring transparent mechanisms to address grievances and counter negative perceptions globally.
Q). The soul of new law, Bhartiya Nyay Sanhita (BNS) is Justice, Equality and Impartiality based on Indian culture and ethos. Discuss this in the light of major shift from a doctrine of punishment to justice in the present judicial system. (UPSC CSE 2024)
Q) Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness. (UPSC CSE 2021)
Q) Analyse the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India. (UPSC CSE 2021)
Mentor’s Comment: There have been continuous debates around the Legislative vs. Judicial powers. The present case is also not different. The Supreme Court of India is currently reviewing the constitutionality of the Marital Rape Exception (MRE) under Section 63 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, which states that sexual acts by a husband with his wife are not considered rape if the wife is over eighteen.
The Centre contends that defining criminal offenses is a legislative matter, although the Supreme Court can assess whether the MRE violates Fundamental Rights under the Indian Constitution. This case has sparked significant debate regarding women’s rights and bodily autonomy in India.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India is examining the constitutionality of Section 63, Marital Rape Exception (MRE) in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, which exempts husbands from rape charges involving their wives over eighteen.
The Centre has filed an affidavit supporting this exception, addressing legal concerns related to Articles 14 and 21, highlighting the ongoing debate over women’s rights and bodily autonomy in India.
What are the challenges highlighted by the Central government?
1) The issue of ‘expectation’:
The Centre argues that the Marital Rape Exception (MRE) does not violate Article 14 (right to equality) because married and unmarried women are not in the same position.
It claims that marriage creates a “continuing expectation of reasonable sexual access,” which justifies distinguishing between non-consensual sex within and outside marriage.
The concept of “reasonable sexual access” is criticized as vague, raising questions about who defines it and whether it is subjective or objective.
2) The issue over Marriage institutions and the misuse of law:
The Centre argues that recognizing marital rape as a criminal offense could undermine the sanctity of marriage and lead to false allegations that are hard to disprove.
The argument about the potential misuse of marital rape allegations is seen as a distraction, as any criminal offense can be misused, and trials are designed to determine the validity of claims.
The Centre emphasizes that various laws like, Sections 354, 498A IPC, and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act already provide remedies for violations of consent within marriage
3) The arguments on the Court’s jurisdiction:
The Centre claims marital rape is a social issue, arguing it falls outside the Court’s jurisdiction, despite the law regulating many aspects of life.
The Centre asserts that Court’s task is to determine if the Marital Rape Exception (MRE) violates Fundamental Rights, not to decide if marital rape should be criminalized.
Many arguments in favor of MRE presented by the Centre are seen as lacking strong legal justification.
What role should Parliament play in addressing marital rape?
Consultation with Stakeholders: Engaging in extensive consultations including women’s rights groups, legal experts, and social scientists will help.
It needs to Promote awareness about consent and the implications of marital rape to shift societal attitudes and foster a culture that respects women’s rights within marriage.
Balancing Rights and Social Norms: Weighing the need for women’s rights and bodily autonomy against traditional views of marriage as an inviolable institution, and ensure that any reforms need to respect both individual rights and societal values.
Updating Legal Framework: Reforming existing laws to provide adequate protection for victims of marital abuse without undermining the institution of marriage, ensuring that legal remedies are effective and accessible.
Parliament also needs to review current legal provisions to ensure they adequately address violations of consent within marriage.
Way Forward:
MRE, being a ‘law’, is subject to Part III of the Constitution of India. In other words, the Court may not be empowered to decide whether marital rape should be a criminal offense or not, but it is very much within the jurisdiction of the Court to determine whether MRE violates a fundamental right and to strike it down if it does.
India has seen a sharp decline in Academic Freedom Index rankings over the past 10 years.
About theAcademic Freedom Index (AFI):
Details
Released by
Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi) in collaboration with Scholars at Risk (SAR) and V-Dem Institute (Varieties of Democracy)
Published as a part of a globaltime-series dataset (1900-2019)
Purpose
To assess and quantify academic freedom across different countries
Score Range
0 (complete repression) to 1 (full academic freedom)
Scores based on expert surveys and institutional data
Main Parameters
Freedom to Research and Teach
Institutional Autonomy
Freedom of Academic Exchange and Dissemination
Campus Integrity
Freedom of Expression for Academics
Constitutional Protection of Academic Freedom
Usage
Tracking academic freedom trends
Influencing policy
Advocating for academic liberty in different countries
Annual Report
Published as part of the “Free to Think” report series by Scholars at Risk
India’s Performance:
India’s academic freedom score dropped from 0.6 points in 2013 to just 0.2 points in 2023, marking a significant deterioration.
The report categorizes India as “completely restricted”, the country’s lowest rank since the mid-1940s.
This decline is attributed to many factors, including:
Political Influence on Universities
Limitations on Student Protests
Significance
Impact on Democracy: The decline threatens democratic values, as universities, traditionally spaces for free thought and dissent, and are increasingly under political control, limiting student protests and academic expression.
International Reputation: India’s shrinking academic freedom could harm its global standing, making it less attractive to international students, scholars, and research collaborations.
Long-Term Effects on Education: The politicization of higher education may weaken innovation and critical thinking, hindering economic growth and the development of future leaders and policymakers.
Madhya Pradesh CM chaired a meeting in honour of the 16th century tribal queen Rani Durgavati on her 500th birth anniversary.
Rani Durgavati (1524-1564)
Rani Durgavati was born in 1524 in the Chandela dynasty of Mahoba (present-day Uttar Pradesh).
She married Dalpat Shah, son of Gond King Sangram Shah of the Garha-Katanga kingdom.
After her husband’s death in 1550, she ruled the kingdom as regent for her young son, Bir Narayan.
Her role against the Mughals:
Rani Durgavati expanded her kingdom and ruled with prosperity, shifting her capital to Chauragarh for strategic advantage.
In 1564, the Mughal general Asaf Khan, under Emperor Akbar, attacked her kingdom.
She led her forces bravely and initially defeated the Mughals in a strategic battle at Narhi.
To avoid capture, she sacrificed her life, becoming a symbol of courage and resistance.
Her contributions
Rani Durgavati is remembered for her bravery, administrative skills, and martyrdom.
She carried out public works, including the construction of Ranital, a reservoir near Jabalpur.
Celebrated as a symbol of self-determination, especially for tribal communities.
She is honored in Indian history as a patriotic ruler who resisted Mughal expansion, with various political and cultural tributes dedicated to her legacy.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), has recently finished copying inscriptions at three temples in Thirukurungudi, located in Tirunelveli district.
About the 3 temples mentioned:
Nambi Rayar Temple (Thirukoshtiyur Temple)
It is a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu and is located in Thirukoshtiyur, near Sivaganga in Tamil Nadu.
It is one of the 108 Divya Desams (sacred Vishnu temples).
It is known for its association with Ramanuja, one of the most important figures in Vaishnavism, who learned the sacred mantra “Ashtakshara” here.
The temple has a five-tiered rajagopuram (temple tower) and is built in Dravidian style.
It is a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu and is located in Thirumaliruncholai, also known as Azhagar Kovil, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
This temple is also one of the 108 Divya Desams.
Thirumalai Nambi, who was a saint and a scholar, was closely associated with this temple and served as a priest here.
The temple is set in a hilly region and has intricate carvings and sculptures in traditional Dravidian architecture.
Aniliswarar Temple
It is a Shaivite temple located in Anilivandhan Kottai, near Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu.
The temple architecture is traditional with a smaller gopuram (temple tower) compared to the larger, more well-known temples.
About Dravidian Style of Architecture
Details
Flourished
8th century to the 13-14th century AD
Enclosure
Temples are enclosed within a compound wall, unlike Nagara temples.
Notable Features
Gopuram (Entrance Gateway): The front wall has an elaborate gateway tower called Gopuram, which serves as the main entrance to the temple complex.
Vimana (Main Tower): Vimana or temple tower has a stepped pyramid-like structure that rises geometrically, unlike the curving shikhara in North Indian temples.
Temple Tank: It is common to have a large water reservoir or temple tank enclosed within the temple complex.
Shapes of Temples
Square (Kuta or Caturasra)
Rectangular (Shala or Ayatasra)
Elliptical (Gaja-prishta or Vrittayata)
Circular (Vritta)
Octagonal (Ashtasra)
Notable Temples
The Pallavas, early builders of Dravidian temples, started with rock-cut temples and later shifted to structural temples.
Mahabalipuram: Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) initiated construction, and Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) built the Shore Temple.
The Shore Temple houses three shrines for Shiva and Vishnu.
The Rajarajeswara or Brahadeeshwarar Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola in 1009 CE, is the largest and tallest of Indian temples. It features large Gopurams with elaborate sculptures.
Significance
Temples were not only religious centers but also key administrative hubs, controlling large areas of land and resources, especially during the 8th-12th centuries.
PYQ:
[2012] The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the:
(a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent
(b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified
(c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture
(d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India
Maharashtra’s 997 youth, earning Rs 1.37 lakh in Israel, engage in circular migration, boosting skills through labour mobility agreements.
What is the “triple win” scenario associated with circular migration?
Migrants win by gaining high-paying jobs, improving their skills, and getting social security benefits while working abroad.
The home country (like India) wins because when the workers return, they bring back new skills and experience that help improve local industries.
The host country (like Israel or Germany) wins because they get the skilled workers they need to fill labour shortages without facing long-term migration issues.
How does circular migration contribute to skill development and poverty alleviation for Indian migrants?
Skill Development: Indian workers gain exposure to international work environments, cutting-edge technology, and management protocols, which enhance their skills and employability.
Poverty Alleviation: Higher wages in developed countries allow migrants to send remittances back home, improving the economic conditions of their families and contributing to poverty alleviation.
In what way does circular migration mitigate the issue of brain drain?
Temporary Nature: Since workers return after a set period (e.g., five years), they bring back their enhanced skills and experience, preventing a permanent loss of talent to foreign nations.
Knowledge Transfer: Returning workers contribute to domestic industries by applying the new skills and technologies they learned abroad, benefiting the home economy.
What are the policy implications for implementing circular migration effectively? (Way forward)
Skill Matching and Training: Governments must ensure exact skill matching between migrant workers and the requirements of the destination countries, providing refresher courses and training as needed.
Government-to-Government Agreements: Strong bilateral agreements are essential to safeguard the rights of workers, ensure fair wages, and provide social security in the destination countries.
Streamlined Procedures: Policies should simplify legal compliances, fast-track passport issuance, and remove barriers like language skills through training in languages such as Japanese, German, or French.
Conclusion: Circular migration offers a “triple win” by benefiting migrants, home countries, and host nations. It enhances skills, boosts incomes, mitigates brain drain, and fosters knowledge transfer, provided there is proper policy support, skill matching, and streamlined processes.
Mains PYQ:
Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)
The Chenchu tribe, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) in Andhra Pradesh, faces poverty, unemployment, and worsening living conditions due to the discontinuation of a special MGNREGS project.
The government launched the MGNREGS Chenchu Special Project in 2009 to address their specific needs, providing 180 days of employment.
AboutChenchu Tribe
Details
Location
Primarily found in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Odisha
Habitat
Sparse and deciduous Nallamala forest, part of the Eastern Ghats
Language
Chenchu language, belonging to the Dravidian language family
Traditional Livelihood
Hunter-gatherers, relying on forest produce like honey, roots, tubers, soapberries, and gum for sustenance
Role in Tiger Conservation
Involved as tiger protection watchers in the Nagarjuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (NSTR)
Forest Rights
Granted land rights under the Forest Rights Act (2006), allowing subsistence farming and forest dwelling
Challenges
Facing displacement, low literacy rate (40.6%), and rehabilitation issues due to relocation from their forest homes
Cultural Practices
Worship Malalamma Vana Devatha (goddess of honey); brew liquor from acacia bark, mahua flower, and jaggery
Society
Community-oriented with close-knit family bonds, practicing traditional subsistence living and deeply connected to forest ecosystems
Population
64,227 (2011 Census), spread across five districts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Government Support
Special rights granted under the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (FRA)
Major Threats
Displacement due to tiger conservation efforts, lack of modern skills, poverty, and low literacy rates
