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GS Paper: GS1

  • The case for a Caste Census 

    Why in the news? 

    The Census Act, 1948 ought to be revised to mandate the inclusion of caste enumeration as a regular part of the Census process, incorporating specific questions in the questionnaire to gather this data systematically, rather than leaving it subject to discretionary decisions by the Union executive.

    Why a Caste Census?

    • Social Relevance: Caste remains a significant social determinant in India, influencing access to opportunities, resources, and representation. A caste census is essential to understand and address caste-based inequalities and social stratification accurately.
    • Policy Formulation: Constitutionally mandated policies such as reservations in education, employment, and legislative bodies rely on caste-based data to ensure effective implementation. Detailed enumeration helps in identifying beneficiaries, preventing misclassification, and ensuring equitable distribution of benefits.
    • Administrative Precision: Detailed caste-wise data is crucial for administrative purposes, including planning and allocation of resources. It helps in targeting development programs and policies for specific caste groups based on their socio-economic status and needs.
    • Historical Context: India has a history of caste-based discrimination and marginalization. A caste census provides empirical evidence of existing disparities, enabling the government and civil society to design interventions aimed at promoting social justice and equality.

    The arguments against caste Census

    • Social Divisiveness: Critics argue that emphasizing caste through a census could perpetuate social divisions and caste identities. They fear that highlighting caste differences could exacerbate tensions and hinder national unity.
    • Administrative Complexity: Conducting a caste census is seen as administratively challenging due to the sheer number of caste groups in India, estimated to be thousands, many of which are region-specific. Critics argue that accurately enumerating and categorizing these castes could pose logistical difficulties and lead to inaccuracies.
    • Political Implications: There are concerns that caste-based data could be misused for electoral gains and political manoeuvring. Critics argue that caste enumeration might lead to demands for increased reservations and create further divisions along caste lines in political representation and decision-making processes.

    How an attempt at caste Census failed

    • Constitutional Mandate: The Constitution of India provides for reservations in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)) for OBCs. Enumerating OBCs in the Census is essential to effectively implement these constitutional provisions and ensure accurate representation.
    • Policy Implementation: Detailed caste-wise data is necessary for effective policy formulation and implementation related to reservations, social justice, and welfare schemes targeting OBC communities. It helps in identifying deserving beneficiaries and avoiding wrongful inclusions or exclusions.
    • Judicial Imperative: The Supreme Court of India, in various rulings like Indra Sawhney case (1992), has underscored the importance of accurate caste data for upholding reservation policies and ensuring social justice. The court has emphasized the need for periodically revising the OBC list based on updated census data.
    • Local Governance and Representation: Post the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution, which introduced reservations for OBCs in local bodies (panchayats and municipalities), accurate caste data at the local level is crucial for fair representation and effective governance.

    How an attempt at caste Census failed

    • Poor Design and Execution: The Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC)-2011, conducted through Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, lacked the expertise and experience needed for sociological surveys
    • Legal and Administrative Challenges: The SECC-2011 was not conducted under the Census Act, 1948, which meant it lacked the legal framework and procedural clarity required for a comprehensive census.

    Way forward: 

    • Amendment of Census Act: Amend the Census Act, 1948, to explicitly include caste as a parameter for enumeration. This legal revision will provide a clear mandate and framework for conducting a comprehensive caste Census, ensuring adherence to standardised procedures and data collection methodologies.
    • Expert Involvement and Public Consultation: Engage sociological and anthropological experts to develop a detailed list of caste categories specific to each state. Publish the draft list online for public review and feedback, facilitating transparency and accuracy in caste enumeration.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • [11th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s Demographic journey of hits and misses

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains: 

    Q) What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, of 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India? (UPSC IAS/2021)
    Q) Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail.  (UPSC IAS/2020)

    Prelims:
    India is regarded as a country With a “Demographic Dividend” This is due to (UPSC IAS/2011)
    (a) Its high population in the age group below 15 years.
    (b) Its high population in the age group of 15-64 years.
    (c) Its high population in the age group above 65 years.
    (d) Its high total population.

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: World Population Day; Demographic Dividend;

    Mains:  Demographic Dividend; Poverty; Mortality; Food Security;

    Mentor comment: Over the decades, the world has seen significant demographic changes, with declining fertility rates and increasing life expectancy globally. India has also made notable progress, with fertility rates falling below replacement level and improvements in maternal and child health indicators. However, population dynamics continue to pose challenges that require attention and proactive measures. As the world approaches the 2030 target for the Sustainable Development Goals, understanding a country’s population trends is crucial to tailoring solutions and driving progress.

    Let’s learn!

    __

    Why in the news? 

    The day July 11, was established by the United Nations as the ‘World Population Day’ in 1989, to raise awareness about global population issues and their impact on development, the environment, and individual well-being.

    World Population – Then and Now:
    1. The decades of the 1960s and 1970s were scary as the global population was growing at a yearly rate of 2%. 
    2. The Total Fertility Rate of the world has dropped from around five children per woman in 1950, to 2.3 children per woman in 2023. 

    About Malthus Theory of Population
    1. Thomas Malthus’ Theory of Population, proposed in 1798, posited that population growth would outpace food production, leading to widespread famine and poverty.
    2. He believed population grows exponentially while food production increases linearly. However, advancements in agriculture and technology have prevented the catastrophic outcomes he predicted.

    India’s population dynamics – The main components:

    • Fertility: According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-5, India’s total fertility rate (TFR) decreased from 3.4 to 2 between 1992 and 2021, dropping below the replacement level of 2.1. 
    • Mortality: There has been a significant drop in the mortality rate as well. The average life expectancy of Indians has also increased over time.
    • Aging Population:  India is experiencing a demographic shift, towards an aging population. According to the 2011 Census, individuals aged 60 years and above constituted 8.6% of the total population. The figure is projected to rise to 19.5% by 2050. 
    • Migration: 
      • Urbanization: Rapid Rural-to-Urban migration is straining urban infrastructure.
      • Gender Equality: Women’s labor force participation and political representation are crucial for sustainable development
    But what do these changing dynamics signify?

    India’s population dynamics are intertwined with its ‘development’ scenario. The reduction in fertility signifies a transition toward smaller family norms.  It has many implications for the Social Development as follows:

    • Demographic Dividend: A smaller dependent population can lead to a larger working-age population, potentially boosting economic growth.
    • Healthcare and Living Standards: Declining mortality rates and increasing life expectancy indicate improvements in healthcare and living standards.
    • Population Ageing: Requires long-term planning for geriatric care and social security benefits.
    • Gender Equality: Women’s labour force participation, which is straggling, their notable absence from Political representation, and their unending plight within society. Ensuring women’s rights and participation is essential for sustainable development.

    India’s Journey towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

    • Poverty Reduction (SDG 1)
      • The population living below the poverty line reduced from 48% to 10% between 1990 and 2019.
      • Government Initiatives:
      • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) was critical in addressing rural poverty.
      • Janani Suraksha Yojana (2005) increased institutional deliveries and reduced health expenditures for poor families.
    • Food Security and Nutrition (SDG 2)
      • India became self-sufficient in crop production after the Green Revolution hence, the proportion of the population suffering from hunger reduced from 18.3% in 2001 to 16.6% in 2021. However, India still contributes a third of the global burden of malnutrition.
      • Government Initiative:
      • POSHAN Abhiyaan (2018) aims to improve nutrition, but achieving ‘Zero Hunger’ by 2030 remains challenging.
    • Health Improvements (SDG3)
      • Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) decreased from 384.4 in 2000 to 102.7 in 2020.
      • Under-five mortality rate and infant mortality rate significantly reduced post-2000s. Improvements in quality and coverage of healthcare, but still need to reach targets.

    What needs looking into?

    • Population Dynamics: India needs to harness demographic dividend by creating job opportunities for the youth by addressing the rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and strengthening social safety nets.
    • Nutrition: The government needs to increase budgetary allocation for health and nutrition sectors and strengthen nutrition programs to address malnutrition.
    • Gender Equality: Empowering socio-economically the section of vulnerable women and adopting a gender-equal approach in policy and development initiatives.
    • Collaborative Approach: Encouraging a multi-sectoral collaboration and ensuring a strong political will to drive progress efficiently.

  • The share of women in the unincorporated sector is highest in the south   

    Why in the News? 

    Recently the Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector 2022-23 revealed higher shares of women owners and workers in southern and some eastern states, and lower in western, northern, and central states.

    Gender disparity in India concerning working-owners and unpaid family workers:

    • Prevalence of Women in Unpaid Family Worker Roles: Data from the Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector 2022-23 reveals that women are predominantly represented as unpaid family workers.
      • For instance, in Telangana, while 43% of working owners are women, a substantial 59% are unpaid family workers, illustrating a significant gender disparity.
    • Lower Representation of Women as Working Owners: Across India, the proportion of women in working-owner roles is considerably lower compared to men. 
      • For example, in Telangana, women constitute 43% of working owners, reflecting a gender gap where men are more likely to own and operate businesses.
    • Regional Trends Highlighting Gender Disparities: The southern states, such as Telangana, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, display a relatively higher share of women in both working-owner and unpaid family worker roles. 
      • Despite this, the overall pattern shows more men in ownership positions and more women in unpaid roles, reinforcing the gender imbalance.
    • Sector-Specific Disparities: In the manufacturing sector, women’s representation as working-owners and hired workers is lower than in unpaid family roles. 
      • For example, in Telangana, women constitute 52% of formal hired workers but only 26% of informal hired workers, indicating a disparity in employment types and compensation.
    • National Overview of Gender Roles: On a national level, the survey indicates that the share of women in unincorporated enterprises varies by state and job type. 
      • While women play a significant role in unpaid family work, their representation as working owners remains limited. 
      • This trend is consistent across different regions, with southern states showing relatively better but still imbalanced gender representation in the workforce.

    The reason behind these issues: 

    • Cultural and Societal Norms: Traditional gender roles in India often assign women the responsibility of unpaid domestic and family work, limiting their opportunities for paid employment and entrepreneurship.
    • Access to Resources and Opportunities: Women often have less access to financial resources, credit, and capital needed to start and run businesses compared to men. This financial barrier restricts their ability to become working-owners.
    • Work-Life Balance and Family Responsibilities: Women typically bear a disproportionate share of caregiving and household responsibilities, limiting their availability for formal employment and entrepreneurial activities.
    • Network and Mentorship Gaps: Women often have fewer professional networks and mentorship opportunities, which are crucial for business growth and career advancement.

    Steps taken by the Indian Government: 

    Scheme/Initiative Year Objective Key Features
    Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) 2015 Address declining child sex ratio and empower girls through education ·         Awareness and advocacy campaigns

    ·         Enforcement of PC&PNDT Act

    ·         Improving enrolment of girls in schools
    One Stop Centres (OSC) 2015 Provide integrated support and assistance to women affected by violence ·         Medical aid

    ·         Police assistance

    ·         Legal aid

    ·         Psycho-social counseling

    ·         Temporary shelter
    Ujjwala Yojana 2016 Provide LPG connections to women from BPL households to safeguard their health ·         Clean cooking fuel

    ·         Reduce health hazards associated with unclean fuels
    Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK) 2017 Empower rural women through community participation ·         Interface for rural women to approach government

    ·         Skill development training at grassroots level
    Nari Shakti Puraskar 2015 Recognize exceptional work in empowering women and promoting gender equality ·         Highest civilian honors for women

    ·         Conferred by the President of India on International Women’s Day

     

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Access to Financial Resources and Training: Implement targeted financial programs to provide women with easier access to credit, grants, and capital needed to start and grow businesses. This can include microfinance initiatives, low-interest loans, and financial literacy training.
    • Strengthen Legal and Social Support Systems: Enforce and improve existing gender equality laws and policies to ensure women’s rights in the workforce and in business ownership. This includes better implementation of anti-discrimination laws and providing legal support to women entrepreneurs.

    Mains question for practice: 

    Q Despite various government initiatives and policies aimed at promoting gender equality, significant gender disparities persist in the ownership and workforce participation in unincorporated enterprises across different regions of India. Discuss the reasons behind these disparities and suggest measures to address them.15M

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q “Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • News in Frames: Chandravalli Caves

    Why in the News?

    Observations made by previous historians who had found painted pottery and coins from the Shatavahana empire and the pre-historic period were once again in the news.

    About Chandravalli Caves (also known as Ankali Math)

      • Chandravalli, a cave temple near Chitradurga, is also a pre-historic site.
      • Observations at the Site:
        • Previous excavations were carried out by Mortimer Wheeler under the guidance of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1947.
        • The cave features multiple chambers including a puja place with a shivlinga, a drawing room, a bedroom, and a water outlet connected to an internal tank.
        • The caves are accessible only through a narrow entrance, with interiors visible only with the help of a powerful torch hence they are also called as “Dark Caves”.
          • Presently, Excavations have revealed artifacts such as coins, painted bowls, and earthen pots from various dynasties such as the Hoysala, the Satavahana, and the Vijayanagara.
          • Excavation reports show that human habitation existed here even during the Iron Age.
    • Historical Aspect: 
      • They were named after a saint from Ankalagi in Belagavi district who is believed to have settled here.
      • The cave also contains a rock inscription of Mayurasharma, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, dating back to AD 450.

    About Kadamba dynasty

    • The Kadambas of Goa were vassals of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana. In recognition of his assistance in defeating the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyan emperor Tailapa II appointed Kadamba Shasthadeva as the provincial governor (Mahamandaleshwara) of Goa.
    • In 960 AD, Shasthadeva captured the city of Chandavara from the Shilaharas and later seized control of the port of Gopakapattana, which is present-day Goa.
    • Talara Nevayya’s son Gundayya may have fought alongside Shasthadeva in the conquest of the port but died in the battle after successfully capturing it.
    • Coins from Indian kings like Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Krishnadevaraya, various Satavahana kings, and Viraraya of the Hoysala kingdom have been discovered.
    • Among the foreign coins found are denarii of Roman ruler Augustus Caesar and a coin of Chinese Han dynasty Emperor Wu Ti.
    • Geographical Aspects:
      • The area is semi-arid with scrub vegetation and a stream running through it.
      • These caves are surrounded by three hills: Chitradurga, Kirabanakallu, and Jolagudda.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.

    (b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.

    (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.

    (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.

  • Leang Karampuang Cave is the World’s Oldest Cave Art  

    Why in the News?

    • A cave painting discovered in the limestone cave of Leang Karampuang on Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, dates back at least 51,200 years.
      • The painting features a scene with three part-human, part-animal figures interacting with a wild pig, depicted in red pigment.
    Study Details:

    • Published in the journal Nature, the study titled ‘Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago’ used a new dating technique to determine the age of the artwork.
    • The study involved 23 researchers from Griffith University, Southern Cross University, and the Indonesian National Research and Innovation Agency.

    Use of Uranium-based Dating:

    • A new dating technique utilizes uranium series (U-series) analysis on calcite deposits above cave art.
    • The laser-based analysis measures uranium-thorium ratios to accurately date paintings, highlighting significant age revisions for cave art in Sulawesi.

    About Leang Karampuang Cave

    • Leang Karampuang Cave is situated in the Maros-Pangkep karst region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
    • The cave is renowned for its ancient rock art and archaeological findings, providing insights into early human civilization in the region.
    • It features some of the oldest known hand stencils and paintings of animals, believed to be created by early humans. 

    Key features of the Cave Paintings:

    • A painted scene depicting humans interacting with a pig on the cave wall.
    • The artwork features a pig standing upright alongside three smaller human-like figures, all painted in a single shade of dark red pigment.
    • This painting predates the cave art found in El Castillo, Spain, dating back around 40,800 years ago, marking it as older than European cave paintings.

    Significance of the Painting

    • According to researchers, the figures in the painting depict dynamic action, suggesting a narrative or story being told.
      • The discovery pushes back the origin of figurative art among Homo sapiens, indicating a rich history of storytelling through visual art in early human societies.
    • While Neanderthals began cave markings earlier, around 75,000 years ago, these were primarily non-figurative.
    • The Sulawesi cave art suggests an advanced cultural and artistic development among early humans, predating similar European art by millennia.
    Contemporary Period in the Indian Subcontinent:

    • Homo sapiens had already migrated to various parts of the Indian subcontinent by this time. 
    • Evidence suggests human habitation in India dates back to at least 70,000 years ago, with notable archaeological sites like Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh showing signs of early human activity and rock art.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at

    (a) Ajanta

    (b) Badami

    (c) Bagh

    (d) Ellora 

     

  • What is Aphelion?

    Why in the News?

    Early on July 5, the Earth reached aphelion, its farthest distance from the sun in our year-long journey around our nearest star.

    What is Aphelion? 

    • Aphelion is a term used in astronomy to denote the point in the orbit of a planet or celestial body where it is farthest from the Sun. 
    • The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is not a perfect circle but rather an ellipse, with the Sun situated at one of the two foci of the ellipse. 
    • Aphelion marks the moment when Earth is at its maximum distance from the Sun along this elliptical path.
    • The concept of aphelion was crucial in Johannes Kepler‘s formulation of his laws of planetary motion during the 17th century.

    How far is the Earth from the Sun at aphelion? 

    • At aphelion, which occurs around July 4th– 5th each year, the Earth is approximately 152.1 million kilometers (about 94.5 million miles) away from the Sun. 
    • This distance is about 3.3% greater than its average distance from the Sun, known as its semi-major axis, which is about 147.1 million kilometers.

    Does aphelion affect temperatures on Earth? 

    • Aphelion has a slight effect on temperatures on Earth, but its impact is minimal compared to other factors such as axial tilt and atmospheric circulation patterns. 
    • Despite being farther from the Sun during aphelion, the Earth’s tilt towards the Sun during the northern hemisphere’s summer results in warmer temperatures for that region. 
    • This phenomenon is primarily responsible for the seasons on Earth.

    What would happen if there were no aphelion? 

    • If Earth’s orbit were perfectly circular, without aphelion or perihelion (the closest point to the Sun), the distance between Earth and the Sun would remain constant throughout the year. 
    • This scenario would result in less variation in seasonal temperatures between the northern and southern hemispheres. 
    • The distinct seasons that we experience today, which are essential for ecological diversity and agricultural cycles, would be significantly altered.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Variations in the length of daytime and night time from season to season are due to-

    (a) The earth’s rotation on its axis

    (b) The earth’s revolution round the sun in an elliptical manner

    (c) Latitudinal position of the place

    (d) Revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

  • The story of the American Declaration of Independence   

    Why in the news? 

    July 4 commemorates the 248th Independence Day of the United States, celebrating the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the foundational document that established the US as a union of states freed from British rule.

    Why did the colonists want Independence from Britain?

    • Lack of Representation: Colonists were discontented with British policies that imposed taxes and laws without colonial representation in the British Parliament, which they viewed as unjust and oppressive.
    • Policy Shifts: After the French and Indian War, Britain ended its policy of salutary neglect and imposed stricter controls on the colonies, including prohibitions on westward expansion and new taxes through acts like the Stamp Act and Tea Act.
    • Ideas of Freedom: Influenced by Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, colonists began to articulate grievances against monarchical rule and asserted their natural rights to self-governance.
    • Resistance Movements: Events like the Boston Tea Party symbolized widespread resistance to British taxation and policies, galvanizing colonial unity and determination for independence.
    • Armed Conflict: The escalation from protests and boycotts to armed conflict (beginning in 1775) underscored the colonies’ resolve to break away from British control and establish their own governance.

    What happened in the lead up to American independence?

    • Formation of Continental Congress: Colonists formed the Continental Congress to coordinate resistance efforts and explore avenues for negotiation with Britain, which ultimately failed due to British refusal to grant representation.
    • Boycotts and Protests: Colonists attempted economic boycotts of British goods and engaged in protests against oppressive British policies, marking a period of growing dissent and opposition.
    • Outbreak of War: By 1775, clashes between colonial militias and British troops erupted into open warfare, solidifying the shift from grievances to armed struggle for independence.
    • Declaration of Independence: The Continental Congress formally declared the colonies’ independence on July 2, 1776, followed by the adoption and signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.
    • Continental Army and Allies: The colonies secured military support and alliances, crucially from France, which helped sustain their war effort against British forces.

    How was the Declaration of Independence formulated?

    • Committee of Five: A committee including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston was appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence.
    • Thomas Jefferson’s Role: Jefferson, primarily responsible for drafting, drew on Enlightenment philosophy and his earlier writings to articulate the principles of natural rights and grievances against British tyranny.
    • Drafting Process: The committee reviewed Jefferson’s draft, incorporating edits and revisions suggested by Adams, Franklin, and others before presenting the final version to the Continental Congress.
    • Adoption and Signing: On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress formally adopted the Declaration of Independence, which was signed by 56 delegates representing the thirteen colonies, solidifying their break from British rule.
    • Legacy of equality and rights as a foundation: The Declaration’s proclamation of equality and rights laid the foundation for American ideals of democracy and independence, shaping the course of American history and inspiring similar movements worldwide.

    Conclusion: The Declaration of Independence, adopted on July 4, 1776, marked a pivotal moment as the American colonies asserted their sovereignty, based on Enlightenment ideals, igniting a global pursuit of liberty and democratic principles.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q American Revolution was an economic revolt against mercantilism. Substantiate. (UPSC IAS/2013)

  • [5th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Computer literacy in India needs a reboot 

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains: 
    Q) National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (UPSC CSE 2020) 
    Q) “Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes more educated, aware, skilled and creative.” What measures have been taken by the government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable? (UPSC CSE 2016) 

    Prelims:

    Q) Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2018) 
    1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.
    2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.
    3. In India, more than 90% of teacher -5 education institutions are directly under the State Governments.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 1 and 3
    (d) 3 only

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: National Education Policy 2020; Digital India Campaign of 2015;

    Mains: Social Issues and Justice; Education; Population; Literacy Rate;

    Mentors Comment: Digital literacy is essential for full participation in India’s rapidly digitizing society and economy. As critical services like banking, healthcare, and government services have become increasingly digitized, the ability to effectively use computers and technology is crucial for accessing these essential services and enhancing quality of life. The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the importance of digital skills, from online education to managing financial and medical needs remotely. However, India’s computer literacy rate stands at just 24.7%, with wide disparities between urban and rural areas as well as across age groups and socioeconomic status. Unless serious efforts are made to universalize digital literacy, a significant portion of the population, especially in rural and marginalized communities, will face exclusion from the digital economy and public services. 

    Let’s learn. 

    —

    Why in the News?

    According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) and National Statistical Office, India still has lower levels of literacy than many other nations, though.

    • The literacy rate is 77.70%, with literate males at 84.70% and literate females at 70.30%,

    Context:

    • The latest NSS survey shows computer literacy in India stands at only 24.7% among individuals aged 15 and above, with rural areas lagging behind at 18.1%. This digital divide puts a significant portion of the population at risk of exclusion from digital public services.
    • The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of computer and internet access for everyday tasks.
    • Unless serious measures are taken to universalize digital literacy, rural India’s population, which is nearly 70%, will face significant disadvantages in accessing critical services.
    Initiatives taken up by government:

    Digital India campaign in 2015:
    The Digital India campaign launched by the Indian government in 2015 has had a mixed impact on computer literacy rates in the country.
    The campaign aimed to transform India into a digitally empowered society and improve digital infrastructure and services.

    National Education Policy (2020):

    The NEP 2020 lays emphasis on the use of technology to provide high-quality education to students, irrespective of their geographical location.
    Digital education will be an integral part of the curriculum, with a focus on developing digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

    Present Scenario: Progress of Digital India campaign and present literacy rates in India:

    The Digital India campaign launched by the Indian government in 2015 has had a mixed impact on computer literacy rates in the country:

    • Limited Success: The latest National Sample Survey (NSS) data shows that computer literacy in India remains low at just 24.7% among individuals aged 15 and above .
      • While this represents an increase from 18.4% in 2017-18, the figures still highlight a significant digital divide.
      • In rural areas, computer literacy stands at only 18.1%, compared to 39.6% in urban areas.
      • Nearly 70% living in rural areas, remain excluded from accessing digital services and public amenities.
    • Cohort Effect:
      • Computer literacy peaks at 45.9% among 20-24 year olds, but drops to just 4.4% for 65-69 year olds.
      • Even among younger working-age cohorts (20-39 years), computer literacy is only 34.8% on average.
    • Variations in computer literacy across Indian states:
      • Economically disadvantaged states like Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh have very low rates (under 30%). Prosperous states like Kerala have much higher rates (72.7%)
      • Bridging the digital divide requires sustained efforts by government, private sector and civil society.

    Understanding the Causes:

    • Lack of infrastructure and qualified teachers in schools/colleges for adequate computer training limits job prospects and employment opportunities. It creates a digital divide and skill gap in the job market.
    • Gaps in access and quality of computer education in the formal education system leads to social isolation and financial exclusion from online services.
    • Lack of motivation and access to learning resources among older age groups restricts access to information and resources in the digital age.

    Way Forward: There are some focus areas where we can concentrate:

    • For School level: School education should ensure that all graduating students possess computer literacy skills, as this is crucial to bridge the digital divide. The government should allocate resources towards the training of computer personnel and ensure sufficient staffing levels. 
    • For Old-aged people: For the older population outside the formal education system, targeted programmes are essential.
      • These should involve various institutions, including local governing bodies such as panchayats and non-governmental organisations, to effectively reach and empower older individuals with computer literacy skills. 
    • Quality Control and Monitoring: The government should also conduct a thorough review of such computer literacy and develop strategies to achieve higher literacy and reduce disparities in the coming years. 

  • Significance of ‘Abhaya Mudra’

     

    Why in the News?

    The Leader of Opposition invoked the Abhaya Mudra in his inaugural address as Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha.

    What is Abhay Mudra?

    • Abhaya mudra, the motif of an open palm (gesturing to stop), is prevalent across many South Asian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
    • Known as the ‘fearlessness gesture’, ‘abhaya’ in Sanskrit means fearlessness. The gesture symbolizes protection and peace.
    • In yoga circles, the abhaya mudra is believed to promote courage and reduce fear and anxiety.
    • While common across many religions, the abhaya mudra is most prominently featured in Buddhism, especially in Thailand and Laos, where it is associated with images of the walking Buddha.

    Origins of the Gesture

    • According to Stanford University, the gesture of an open palm pointed outwards appears to be a natural gesture used since prehistoric times as a sign of good intentions and peace.
    • The gesture also asserted power in antiquity, similar to the magna manus of the Roman Emperors who legislated and gave peace simultaneously.
    • The motif likely originated from a universal gesture associated with human communication, eventually integrating into major South Asian religions.

    Evolution of Mudras in Buddhism

    • For about 500 years after the Buddha, he was not depicted in physical form.
    • Early representations appeared around the first millennium, influenced by Gandhara and Gupta art.
    • With the evolution of these Buddhist traditions, hundreds of mudras entered Buddhist iconography.
    • In tantric Buddhist traditions, mudras symbolized material offerings, enacted forms of worship, or relationships with visualized deities. (as shown in the above diagram)

    Significance of ‘Abhaya Mudra’ in Buddhism: 

    • In Buddhism, the abhaya mudra is linked to a legend involving Devadatta, a cousin of the Buddha, who tried to murder the Buddha by losing a rampaging elephant into his path.
    • The Buddha calmed the elephant by displaying the abhaya mudra, indicating appeasement of the senses and the absence of fear.
    • The gesture is popularly pronounced in Buddhist cultures, symbolizing fearlessness and peace.

    Significance of ‘Abhaya Mudra’ in Hindu Religion:

    • The Buddha was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.
    • Hindus regarded the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu between AD 450 and the sixth century, with the first mention in the Vishnu Purana (400-500 CE).
    • The abhaya mudra appears in depictions of Hindu deities, commonly seen in images of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Ganesha.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes:

    (a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation

    (b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara

    (c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory

    (d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context

    [2014] Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to the Greeks. Explain.

    [2016] Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate.
  • [2nd July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Glossing over unemployment, its high electoral price

    [2nd July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Glossing over unemployment, its high electoral price

    PYQ Relevance:
    Q Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC IAS/2020)
    Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of society. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2022)

    Mentor comment: The Indian economy needs to generate over 25 million jobs in the next five years to employ all the currently unemployed. Despite the Narendra Modi government’s claim of an 8% GDP growth rate last year, job creation has not kept pace. Although the unemployment rate for those aged 15 and above decreased from 4.2% in 2021 to 3.1% in 2023, this improvement is insufficient. In the 2024 general election, the Bharatiya Janata Party lost its majority, forming a coalition with parties holding different economic views due to the job market setback.

    Let’s Learn!

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    Why in the news?

    The Modi government claimed 8% GDP growth last year, but this has not translated into adequate job creation, as shown by current unemployment rates.

    Inequality gap is widening

    • Rising Wealth Inequality: In the past two decades, the gap between the rich and the poor has significantly widened. Official statistics reveal that 1% of India’s population now owns 40% of the country’s wealth.
    • K-shaped Economic Inequality: The term “K-shaped” inequality describes the phenomenon where income and consumption for a few are rising, while for the majority, it is declining.This has been particularly evident over the past decade under BJP central rule.
    • Income Inequality: The World Inequality Report 2022 highlights that India is one of the most unequal countries globally, with the top 10% and top 1% of the population earning 57% and 22% of the national income, respectively. Meanwhile, the bottom 50% see their share reduced to 13%.
    • Tax Burden on the Poor: About 64% of the total Goods and Services Tax (GST) revenue in India is contributed by the bottom 50% of the population, whereas only 4% comes from the top 10%.
    • Healthcare as a Luxury: Many Indians struggle to access necessary healthcare, with 63 million people (nearly two every second) pushed into poverty each year due to healthcare costs.
    • Food Security and Nutrition: According to “The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2023,” around 74% of India’s population cannot afford a healthy diet, and 39% fall short of a nutrient-adequate diet.
    • Global Hunger Index 2023: India’s 2023 Global Hunger Index score is 28.7, categorized as “serious” on the GHI Severity of Hunger Scale.

    Cause of inequality:

    • Structural economic factors: India has struggled to shift its large agricultural workforce towards more productive and better-paying jobs in the formal economy. The economic boom has primarily benefited the top 10-20% while leaving the poor behind.
    • Policy shocks disproportionately impacting the informal sector:  Demonetization, GST implementation, and COVID-19 lockdowns have severely disrupted livelihoods and employment for India’s large informal economy, exacerbating inequality
    • Uneven distribution of wealth and income:  The richest 1% of Indians now own over 40% of the country’s wealth, while the bottom 50% possess only 3% of the wealth. This wealth concentration at the top has accelerated in recent decades.
    • Lack of effective wealth redistribution: Measures like wealth taxes on the super-rich and greater investment in social welfare, healthcare, and education have been lacking, perpetuating the inequality cycle.

    Growth could slip because of 

    • Heavy Reliance on Government Expenditure: The recent GDP growth has been driven significantly by a large Budget deficit and massive government capital expenditure rather than structural investments in key sectors like industry, agriculture, and services.
    • Lack of Structural Investments: Structural investments in the industrial, agricultural, and service sectors are crucial for sustainable economic growth. The absence of significant investments in these sectors means that the foundational aspects of the economy remain weak, potentially hindering long-term growth.
    • Historical GDP Growth Decline: The GDP growth rate has shown significant declines in the past, such as falling from 8% to 3.8% in the fourth quarter of 2019-20. This trend indicates a vulnerability in maintaining high growth rates, especially without addressing underlying economic issues.
    • Fiscal Deficit Concerns: A significantly large Budget deficit to fund government expenditure can lead to concerns about fiscal sustainability.
    • Global Economic Conditions: The global economic environment, including factors such as inflation, interest rates, and geopolitical tensions, can impact India’s growth prospects.Any adverse changes in the global economy could further strain India’s growth trajectory.
    • Sectoral Weaknesses: Weaknesses in key sectors such as manufacturing, agriculture, and services can drag down overall economic growth.

    Way forward: 

    • Support for SMEs and Informal Sector: Given that 92% of jobs in agriculture and 73% of jobs in industry and services are in the unorganised sector, policies aimed at supporting small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and the informal sector are crucial. 
    • Agricultural Reforms and Rural Development: Focusing on modernising agriculture through technology, better irrigation, crop diversification, and improving rural infrastructure can boost productivity and incomes in rural areas. 
    • Education and Skill Development: Investing in education and skill development is essential to equip the workforce with the necessary skills for the evolving job market.