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GS Paper: GS2

  • Vibrant Villages Programme Phase II launched to strengthen border areas 

    Why in the News?

    Union Home Minister Amit Shah launched Phase II of the Vibrant Villages Programme from Assam, aiming to develop border villages and curb migration and infiltration.

    Vibrant Villages Programme I

    Approval

    • Approved on 15 February 2023.
    • Centrally Sponsored Scheme.

    Coverage

    • 662 villages.
    • 46 blocks.
    • 19 districts.
    • States: Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand.
    • UT: Ladakh.
    • Focused on northern border areas.

    Objectives

    • Livelihood generation through:
      • Tourism and cultural heritage.
      • Skill development and entrepreneurship.
      • Agriculture, horticulture, medicinal plants.
    • Infrastructure:
      • Road connectivity.
      • Housing and village infrastructure.
      • Renewable energy.
      • Telecom and TV connectivity.
    • Incentivise population to remain in border villages.

    Vibrant Villages Programme II

    Approval

    • Approved on 2 April 2025.
    • Central Sector Scheme.
    • Outlay: ₹6,839 crore till FY 2028-29.

    Coverage

    • Blocks abutting international land borders other than northern border.
    • Implemented in strategic villages across:
      • Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat.
      • J and K UT, Ladakh UT.
      • Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland.
      • Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim.
      • Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

    Objectives

    • Better living conditions and livelihood opportunities.
    • Safe and secure borders.
    • Control trans border crimes.
    • Integrate border population as “eyes and ears” of border guarding forces.

    Thematic Saturation Areas

    1. All weather road connectivity.
    2. Telecom connectivity.
    3. Television connectivity.
    4. Electrification through convergence.
    [2015] The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to: (a) protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes 

    (b) determine the boundaries between States 

    (c) determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats 

    (d) protect the interests of all border States

  • India attends U.S. Board of Peace meeting as observer

    Why in the News?

    India attended the inaugural meeting of the Board of Peace on Gaza as an observer nation but has not joined the initiative.

    What is the Board of Peace?

    • An initiative announced by Donald Trump.
    • Aimed at redevelopment of the Gaza Strip.
    • Announced during the second phase of a ceasefire agreement between Israel and Hamas.
    • Perceived by some as a parallel platform to the United Nations system.

    Key Features

    • U.S. pledged $10 billion to the initiative.
    • 27 member nations including Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Hungary, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and UAE.
    • India participated as observer through its diplomat in Washington DC.
    • India has not formally joined the Board.

    Strategic Context

    • Gaza Strip located along eastern Mediterranean coast.
    • Ceasefire phase between Israel and Hamas led to renewed diplomatic efforts.
    • U.S. attempting multilateral reconstruction framework outside traditional UN mechanisms.
    [2022] The term “Levant” often heard in the news roughly corresponds to which of the following regions? (a) Region along the eastern Mediterranean shores 

    (b) Region along North African shores stretching from Egypt to Morocco 

    (c) Region along Persian Gulf and Horn of Africa 

    (d) The entire coastal areas of Mediterranean Sea

  • Bela Gram becomes Maharashtra’s first net zero village  

    Why in the News?

    At Mumbai Climate Week 2026, Bela Gram in Bhandara district of Maharashtra was highlighted as the State’s first net zero panchayat, showcasing grassroots climate leadership.

    Location

    • Bela Gram, Bhandara district
    • Vidarbha region, Maharashtra

    What is Net Zero?

    • Achieving balance between:
      • Greenhouse gas emissions produced
      • Emissions removed or offset
    • Often achieved through renewable energy, afforestation, waste management and energy efficiency.

    Key Initiatives in Bela Gram

    • Plantation of over 90,000 trees during weddings and festivals.
    • Transition from traditional chulhas to LPG.
    • Installation of rooftop solar panels in homes, anganwadis and Panchayat offices.
    • Doorstep waste segregation.
    • Elimination of single use plastics.
    • Recipient of Rashtriya Panchayat Puraskar 2024.

    Broader Context

    • Role of Panchayati Raj Institutions in local climate action.
    • Discussion linked to future global climate negotiations and India’s long term net zero targets.
    • Emphasis on decentralised, community driven climate solutions.

    Related Examples

    • Perinjanam in Kerala as Solar Gramam with rooftop prosumers.
    • Use of District Mineral Foundation funds in Jharkhand for water revival and solar irrigation.
    • Community afforestation and water conservation efforts in Odisha, Bihar and Karnataka.
    [2015] The fundamental object of Panchayati Raj system is to ensure which among the following? 

    1. People’s participation in development 

    2. Political accountability 

    3. Democratic decentralization 

    4. Financial mobilization 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below. 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • COAS visit to Australia strengthens defence ties 

    Why in the News?

    Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) Upendra Dwivedi concluded his official visit to Australia from February 16 to 19 to enhance bilateral defence cooperation in the Indo Pacific.

    Key Highlights of Visit

    • Talks with senior leadership of Australian Defence Forces.
    • Interactions with:
      • Forces Command (FORCOMD)
      • Special Operations Command (SOCOMD)
      • 2nd Division of Australian Army
    • Discussions on:
      • Force readiness
      • Operational concepts
      • Training methodologies

    Exercise AUSTRAHIND

    • Bilateral Army exercise between India and Australia.
    • Focus on:
      • Joint operations
      • Interoperability
      • Counter terrorism training
    • Next edition to be held in India later this year.

    Strategic Context

    • India Australia ties elevated to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2020.
    • Cooperation part of broader Indo Pacific security architecture.
    • Defence collaboration complements engagement under frameworks like Quad.
    [2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct? 1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh. 

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune). 

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation. 

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise. 

    Select the answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

  • India joins Pax Silica for resilient electronics supply chains 

    Why in the News?

    India has joined the Pax Silica group during the AI Impact Summit, partnering with the United States and other countries to build resilient supply chains for electronics and critical minerals.

    What is Pax Silica?

    • A multilateral initiative aimed at:
      • Securing electronics supply chains
      • Reducing over dependence on a single country
      • Strengthening access to refined rare earth elements
    • Inaugural summit held in Washington DC.

    Member Countries

    • United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, European Union, and India

    Strategic Context

    • China dominates refining of rare earth elements.
    • Concerns over:
      • Export restrictions
      • Economic coercion
      • Weaponisation of supply chains
    • Initiative promotes supply chain sovereignty and diversification.

    Key Concepts for Prelims

    • Rare Earth Elements: 17 metallic elements essential for electronics, EVs, defence systems.
    • Critical Minerals: Minerals essential for economic and national security.
    • Supply Chain Resilience: Diversification to reduce vulnerability to disruptions.
    • Economic Coercion: Use of trade or economic tools for strategic pressure.
    [2025] Consider the following statements: I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. 

    II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. 

    III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III

  • [20th February 2026] The Hindu OpED: Privacy and transparency: On the RTI Act amendment, petitions

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.

    Linkage: It tests GS-2 (Transparency & Accountability) by examining how RTI amendments can weaken institutional independence and oversight. It directly links to the DPDP-RTI amendment debate, where removal of the public interest override raises concerns about reduced transparency and stronger executive control.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The amendment to Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act through the DPDP Act, 2023 has triggered a constitutional debate on the balance between privacy and transparency. The issue tests the durability of India’s accountability framework in the digital governance era.

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has referred petitions challenging the amendment to Section 8(1)(j) of the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 introduced through the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, to a Constitution Bench, citing its constitutional sensitivity.

    What is Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, 2005?

    Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, 2005 exempts from disclosure personal information that has no relationship to any public activity or interest, or which would cause unwarranted invasion of privacy, unless the Public Information Officer (PIO) is satisfied that a larger public interest justifies it. It balances privacy against transparency, though recent amendments have narrowed its application.

    Key Aspects of Section 8(1)(j):

    1. Exemption Scope: Covers information relating to personal details, privacy, and data that, if disclosed, would not benefit public activity.
    2. Public Interest Override: Even if information is personal, it can be disclosed if the CPIO, SPIO, or appellate authority is satisfied that a “larger public interest” outweighs the harm to the individual’s privacy.
    3. Applicability: Applies to “third-party” information and generally refers to individuals rather than institutions or corporate bodies.
    4. Examples of Denied Info: Examples include third-party personal details, such as an employee’s ID or specific confidential files.
    5. Amendment via DPDP Act 2023: The Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPPA), 2023 substituted this clause, broadly removing the “public interest override” and strengthening the prohibition against disclosing personal data.

    How has the DPDP Act, 2023 amended Section 8(1)(j)?

    1. Deletion of Override Clause: Removes the phrase allowing disclosure in larger public interest.
    2. Expanded Exemption Scope: Prohibits disclosure of “any information which relates to personal information.”
    3. Blanket Restriction: Eliminates proportionality assessment previously embedded in RTI framework.
    4. Structural Shift: Converts a conditional exemption into near-absolute protection.
    5. Integration with DPDP Framework: Aligns RTI disclosure norms with data protection regime prioritizing consent and privacy safeguards.

    What constitutional and governance issues arise from this amendment?

    1. Article 19(1)(a) Impact: Curtails right to information derived from freedom of speech and expression.
    2. Article 21 Protection: Strengthens privacy rights recognized in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (2017).
    3. Doctrine of Proportionality Concern: Removes balancing test between competing fundamental rights.
    4. State-Citizen Asymmetry: Section 7 of DPDP permits state processing of personal data without consent for official functions.
    5. Accountability Deficit: Restricts citizen scrutiny of public officials’ conduct and financial dealings.

    How does the amendment affect journalism and civil society oversight?

    1. Data Fiduciary Classification: Journalists collecting personal data may fall under DPDP compliance obligations.
    2. Financial Penalty Risk: Non-compliance may attract penalties up to ₹250 crore.
    3. Chilling Effect: Limits investigative reporting involving public officials.
    4. Reduced Transparency: Constrains access to procurement, audit, and expenditure records involving personal identifiers.
    5. Institutional Constraint: Weakens RTI as a tool for civil society accountability campaigns.

    How does the Indian framework compare with global data protection standards?

    1. EU GDPR Model: Balances privacy with transparency and journalistic exemptions.
    2. Public Interest Safeguards: Allows processing for public interest and accountability purposes.
    3. Indian Divergence: DPDP amendment lacks explicit balancing mechanism within RTI framework.
    4. Regulatory Integration Challenge: Requires harmonization between transparency law and data protection law.

    Conclusion

    The amendment to Section 8(1)(j) marks a decisive shift in India’s transparency regime. While privacy is a fundamental right, its protection cannot come at the cost of democratic accountability. A constitutionally balanced approach, grounded in proportionality and public interest, is essential to ensure that data protection strengthens, rather than weakens, the foundations of transparent governance.

  • Supreme Court slams unchecked freebies, questions ‘appeasement’

    Why in the News?

    A three-judge Bench led by Chief Justice of India criticised States for offering free electricity and direct cash transfers ahead of elections while running deficits. It questioned how such schemes are funded and said subsidies must be clearly shown in the budget instead of hiding revenue gaps. The Court noted that Tamil Nadu alone faces a power sector revenue gap of around ₹50,000 crore. The issue raises concerns about fiscal discipline, burden on future generations, and whether such policies serve constitutional goals or electoral politics.

    What are Freebies?

    Freebies refer to benefits such as free electricity, free water, cash transfers, loan waivers, free transport, or distribution of consumer goods announced by governments, often around elections. They are generally universal or broadly targeted and may not be strictly linked to poverty or vulnerability criteria.

    Types of Freebies

    1. Consumption-Based Freebies: Free electricity, water, LPG refills, or public transport. These reduce immediate household expenses but increase revenue burden on the State.
    2. Cash Transfers: Direct cash assistance to specific groups (e.g., women, farmers, unemployed youth) without productive conditions attached.
    3. Loan Waivers: Farm loan waivers or interest subventions. These provide short-term relief but may affect credit discipline.
    4. Goods Distribution: Free laptops, smartphones, bicycles, mixers, or other consumer durables.
    5. Service-Based Freebies: Free pilgrimages, free education kits, or free healthcare schemes not linked to targeted social security design.

    Freebies differ from targeted welfare schemes such as MGNREGA or PDS, which are structured, means-tested, and aimed at long-term poverty reduction.

    How Do Universal Subsidies Impact Fiscal Federalism and Public Finance Stability?

    1. Fiscal Deficit Expansion: Increases revenue-expenditure gaps and shifts burden to public exchequer; example: Tamil Nadu power sector revenue gap of ~₹50,000 crore.
    2. Intergenerational Burden: Transfers current consumption costs to future taxpayers through debt accumulation.
    3. Revenue Distortion: Weakens cost-reflective tariff mechanisms mandated under electricity regulatory frameworks.
    4. Budgetary Opacity: Masks real fiscal stress when subsidies are not explicitly budgeted under planned expenditure.
    5. Federal Stress: Limits States’ fiscal space under FRBM constraints.

    Do Electoral Freebies Undermine Constitutional Principles of Welfare State and Equality?

    1. Welfare State Commitment: Constitution envisages targeted support for marginalised sections (Directive Principles).
    2. Equality Principle (Article 14): Universal subsidies blur distinction between those capable of paying and those below poverty line.
    3. Appeasement vs Welfare: Court questioned whether non-discriminatory subsidies amount to political appeasement.
    4. Public Interest Doctrine: State must prioritise sustainable development expenditure over short-term populism.
    5. Institutional Accountability: Elected governments remain accountable for fiscal prudence.

    What Is the Regulatory Concern in the Power Sector?

    1. Cost-Reflective Tariff Rule: Electricity Amendment Rules, 2024 mandate no revenue gap between approved annual revenue requirement and estimated revenue.
    2. Tariff Pass-Through: Revenue gaps eventually increase consumer tariffs.
    3. Subsidy Accounting Reform: Court suggested inclusion of subsidies in planned expenditure to avoid financial opacity.
    4. Public Utility Viability: Persistent losses weaken State DISCOMs and reduce investment capacity.
    5. Moral Hazard: Free electricity reduces incentive for efficient consumption.

    How Does the Judiciary Balance Policy Autonomy with Fiscal Oversight?

    1. Judicial Restraint Principle: Policy decisions fall within executive domain.
    2. Constitutional Guardianship: Court intervenes when fiscal actions affect public interest and economic stability.
    3. Separation of Powers: Remarks do not ban subsidies but question sustainability.
    4. Institutional Dialogue: Encourages reconsideration of policy frameworks rather than direct prohibition.
    5. Democratic Accountability: Final political wisdom rests with elected governments.

    Are Freebies Economically Distinct from Welfare Schemes?

    1. Targeted Welfare: Focuses on vulnerable groups (e.g., PDS, MGNREGA).
    2. Universal Freebies: Extend benefits irrespective of income level.
    3. Capital vs Revenue Expenditure: Freebies often reduce fiscal space for capital investment.
    4. Development Trade-off: Excessive distribution hampers infrastructure and human capital formation.
    5.  Sustainability Criterion: Long-term growth requires disciplined expenditure prioritisation.

    Conclusion

    The debate on freebies highlights the tension between welfare obligations and fiscal responsibility in a federal democracy. While the Constitution mandates support for vulnerable sections, such support must be targeted, transparent, and fiscally sustainable. Competitive populism risks weakening public finances, distorting development priorities, and burdening future generations. A balanced approach that strengthens human capital, ensures cost-reflective pricing, and upholds institutional accountability remains essential for long-term economic stability and constitutional governance.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss

    Linkage: This question links directly to the freebies debate by highlighting that sustainable poverty alleviation requires macroeconomic stability, not just welfare distribution. It brings focus on fiscal discipline, inflation control, and employment generation as structural solutions beyond populist subsidies.

  • General Naravane on India China boundary issue 

    Why in the News?

    Former Army Chief Manoj Mukund Naravane stated that the unresolved India China boundary is at the core of bilateral tensions and emphasised that India will not tolerate unilateral use of force along the LAC.

    Boundary vs Border

    • India Bangladesh border: Mutually recognised and demarcated.
    • India China boundary: Not formally demarcated on ground.
    • The Line of Actual Control is a notional alignment, not a legally settled international boundary.

    Line of Actual Control

    • De facto boundary between India and China.
    • Divided into:
      • Western Sector: Eastern Ladakh
      • Middle Sector: Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh
      • Eastern Sector: Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim
    • Frequent face offs due to differing perceptions of LAC alignment.

    Galwan Context

    • Violent clash in Galwan Valley (June 2020) in eastern Ladakh.
    • Marked major downturn in bilateral ties.

    Land Boundary Agreement 2015

    • Signed between India and Bangladesh.
    • Involved exchange of enclaves and settlement of long pending boundary disputes.
    • Demonstrates that complex boundary disputes can be resolved through negotiations.
    [2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the (a) East of Aksai Chin 

    (b) East of Leh 

    (c) North of Gilgit 

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

  • Supreme Court flags fiscal impact of unchecked freebies 

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India criticised indiscriminate distribution of “freebies” by States while hearing a petition by Tamil Nadu Power Distribution Corporation Limited challenging Rule 23 of the Electricity Amendment Act, 2024.

    Core Issue

    • Petition challenges Rule 23, which limits the gap between:
      • Approved Annual Revenue Requirement
      • Estimated Annual Revenue from tariff
         to 3%.
    • Revenue gap, including late payment surcharge carrying cost, must be cleared in three yearly instalments.
    • TNPDCL argues this may cause tariff shock and strain State finances.
    • Tamil Nadu reportedly faces an annual power sector gap of about ₹50,000 crore.

    Court’s Key Observations

    • States running revenue deficits continue announcing election time largesse.
    • Welfare must distinguish between needy and affluent.
    • Public money should prioritise: Infrastructure, Roads, Hospitals, Schools and Medical colleges
    • Court stressed fiscal prudence, especially during elections.
    • Clarified that design of welfare schemes falls within the domain of elected governments.

    Key Concepts for Prelims

    • Revenue Deficit: Revenue expenditure exceeds revenue receipts.
    • Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR): Total projected cost of providing electricity services.
    • Tariff Shock: Sudden sharp rise in consumer electricity tariffs.
    • Fiscal Prudence: Sustainable and responsible management of public finances.
    [2018] If a commodity is provided free to the public by the Government, then (a) the opportunity cost is zero. 

    (b) the opportunity cost is ignored. 

    (c) the opportunity cost is transferred from the consumers of the product to the tax-paying public. 

    (d) the opportunity cost is transferred from the consumers of the product to the Government.

  • The need for diversity in the judiciary

    Why in the News?

    A private member Bill has been introduced in Parliament proposing greater diversity in judicial appointments and the creation of regional benches of the Supreme Court. The issue has gained attention because the collegium system is being questioned for lack of representation of women and marginalised groups, and because access to the Supreme Court remains difficult for people outside Delhi. The debate revives discussions on judicial reform, transparency, and equal access to justice.

    How does the Constitution structure judicial appointments and institutional balance?

    1. Article 124 Framework: Ensures appointment of Supreme Court judges by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India; establishes constitutional checks.
    2. Article 217 Mechanism: Regulates High Court appointments through consultation involving CJI, Governor and Chief Justice of High Court; supports federal participation.
    3. Article 130 Flexibility: Permits Supreme Court to sit outside Delhi with CJI approval; enables structural decentralisation though rarely utilised.
    4. Institutional Balance: Maintains equilibrium between executive authority and judicial independence in appointments.

    Why was the collegium system created and how has it evolved institutionally?

    1. First Judges Case (1981): Allowed executive primacy in appointments; raised concerns over judicial independence.
    2. Second Judges Case (1993): Created collegium system; ensured judicial primacy to safeguard independence.
    3. Third Judges Case (1998): Expanded collegium composition to include senior judges; strengthened internal consultation.
    4. Outcome: Ensures insulation from executive interference but generates criticism regarding opacity and accountability.

    Why was the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) struck down and what institutional concerns remain?

    1. 99th Constitutional Amendment (2014): Established NJAC including executive members and civil society representation.
    2. Supreme Court Judgment (2015): Struck down NJAC citing violation of basic structure doctrine and judicial independence.
    3. Institutional Impact: Restored collegium system; highlighted tension between transparency and independence.
    4. Accountability Gap: Continues debate over lack of clear selection criteria and public scrutiny.

    What does the proposed Bill indicate about diversity and representational deficits in the higher judiciary?

    1. Social Representation: Less than 20% representation of SC/ST/OBC judges in higher judiciary (as highlighted in article).
    2. Gender Gap: Women’s representation remains below 15%; indicates structural exclusion.
    3. Minority Presence: Religious minorities account for nearly 5% representation; raises equality concerns.
    4. Policy Proposal: Mandates representation proportional to population while making appointments.
    5. Timeline Reform: Suggests maximum 90-day timeline for notifying collegium recommendations; ensures procedural efficiency.

    How can regional benches of the Supreme Court strengthen access to justice and federal balance?

    1. Accessibility Challenge: Supreme Court located only in Delhi limits access for citizens from distant regions.
    2. Case Backlog: Around 90,000+ pending cases indicates pressure on institutional capacity.
    3. Regional Bench Proposal: Benches at Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai; supports geographical equity.
    4. Jurisdiction Design: Constitutional matters remain with principal bench; regional benches handle regular appeals
    5. Outcome: Reduces travel costs, improves timely justice, strengthens federal inclusiveness.

    What governance reforms are suggested to balance independence, diversity, and accountability?

    1. Collegium Reform: Prioritises social diversity within existing framework; ensures constitutional compatibility.
    2. Broader Consultation: Includes representatives from legislature, bar councils, and academia for inclusive inputs.
    3. Comparative Models: UK and South Africa cited as examples of wider consultative appointment systems.
    4. Institutional Accountability: Strengthens legitimacy without undermining judicial autonomy.

    Conclusion

    Judicial diversity and accessibility are emerging as central concerns in debates on institutional reform. Any future framework must preserve judicial independence while ensuring representation, transparency, and equitable access to justice. Structural reforms within constitutional limits remain critical for strengthening public trust in the judiciary.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness.

    Linkage: This question directly links to the debate on diversity in judicial appointments, highlighting representation as a constitutional and governance concern within the higher judiciary. It connects with current discussions on reforming the collegium system to ensure inclusiveness, institutional legitimacy, and equitable access to justice.