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GS Paper: GS2

  • [pib] Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS)

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) recently organized a national workshop on the e-SAKSHI web portal and mobile app for the Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS).

    About MPLADS:

    • Overview: A Central Sector Scheme, launched in 1993, to empower MPs to recommend developmental works in their constituencies, focusing on durable community assets addressing local needs.
    • Administration: Initially under the Ministry of Rural Development; Since 1994, managed by MoSPI.
    • Implementation:
      • State-level nodal department supervises implementation.
      • District authorities sanction projects, release funds, and ensure execution.
    • Funding:
      • Each MP gets ₹5 crore per year (since 2011–12).
      • Disbursed by MoSPI in two instalments of ₹2.5 crore each to district authorities.
      • Funds are non-lapsable i.e. carried forward if unutilized.
    • Targeted Allocation: Minimum 15% for SCs and 7.5% for STs.
    • Special Provisions:
      • Up to ₹25 lakh annually can be spent outside constituency/state for national unity projects.
      • Up to ₹1 crore can be allocated nationwide during severe natural calamities.
    • Eligible Projects:
      • Durable community assets (e.g., libraries, community halls, ambulances, sports infrastructure, sanitation).
      • MPLADS funds can be converged with MGNREGS or integrated with Khelo India for asset creation.
      • Support allowed on lands of registered societies/trusts (3+ years old) engaged in welfare work.
      • Prohibited for societies/trusts where the MP/family are office-bearers.
    • Transparency Measures:
      • Plaque with MP’s name and project details must be installed at project sites.
      • Project details listed in district offices, MPLADS website, and accessible via RTI.
    • Monitoring & Audit:
      • District authorities inspect at least 10% of projects annually.
      • Funds audited by statutory auditors.
      • Regular review meetings at state and central levels.
    • e-SAKSHI platform: Enables MPs to digitally recommend, monitor, and track MPLADS projects, improving transparency, accountability, and efficiency in fund utilization.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to the funds under Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS), which of the following statements are correct?

    1. MPLADS funds must be used to create durable assets like physical infrastructure for health, education, etc.

    2. A specified portion of each MP’s ‘fund must benefit SC/ST populations.

    3. MPLADS funds are sanctioned on yearly basis and the unused funds cannot be carried forward to the next year.

    4. The district authority must inspect at least 10% of all works under implementation every year.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only*

     

  • Foreigners Tribunal (FT) can issue Arrest Warrants

    Why in the News?

    The Union Home Ministry empowered Foreigners Tribunals (FTs), especially in Assam, to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated camps, a power earlier exercised only through executive orders.

    About Foreigners Tribunal (FT):

    • Nature: Quasi-judicial bodies constituted under the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, framed under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
    • Purpose: Decide whether a person is a foreigner/illegal immigrant, especially in the context of Assam’s border migration issues.
    • Cases handled:
      • References from border police against suspected foreigners.
      • Cases of “D” (doubtful) voters flagged by the Election Commission.
    • Composition: Members drawn from retired judges, advocates, and civil servants with judicial experience; capped at 3 members per tribunal.
    • Functioning:
      • FTs exercise powers of a civil court (summons, evidence, witness examination).
      • Required to dispose of cases within 60 days of reference.
      • Burden of proof lies on the individual to establish citizenship (Section 9, Foreigners Act).
    • Present Status: About 100 FTs operational in Assam (expanded after NRC-2019). No FTs in other states, where suspected foreigners are tried in local courts.

    New Provisions under the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025:

    • Replacement: Replaces the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, now part of the comprehensive Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
    • Detention Powers: For the first time, FTs are empowered to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated transit camps, a power earlier exercised through executive orders.
    • Judicial Authority:
      • Powers of a civil court under CPC, 1908.
      • Powers of a judicial magistrate (first class) under Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — including issuing arrest warrants, ordering detention, and directing personal appearance.
    • Ex-parte Orders: Can be set aside if the appellant files a review within 30 days.
    • Scope: Though applicable nationwide, functional relevance remains in Assam.
    • Restrictions on Employment: Bars foreigners from working in strategic sectors (defence, nuclear energy, petroleum, power, water supply, space, human rights) without Central government approval.
    • Border Security Measures: Border forces/Coast Guard to record biometrics and demographic data of illegal entrants before pushing them back.
    • Grounds for Refusal of Stay: Foreigners convicted of terrorism, espionage, narcotics trafficking, organized crime, human trafficking, cybercrime, child abuse, crimes against humanity, etc., can be refused entry or deported.
    • Exemptions: Citizens of Nepal, Bhutan, Tibetans, and Sri Lankan Tamils exempted under a special 2025 order.
    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was set up during the Prime Ministership of Lal Bahadur Shastri.

    2. The Members for CAT are drawn from both judicial and administrative streams.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [3rd September 2025] India needs more women judges in the Supreme Court

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Disucss the desirability of greater representation to women in higher judiciary to ensure equity and inclusiveness.

    Linkage: The acute gender imbalance in the Supreme Court, with only 11 women judges since 1950, directly reflects the inequity in higher judiciary appointments. Greater representation of women is not only about fairness but also about inclusiveness, diversity of perspectives, and legitimacy of justice delivery. This makes the 2021 UPSC question highly relevant as it highlights why institutionalising gender as a criterion in judicial appointments is essential.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The issue of women’s representation in the higher judiciary has resurfaced sharply after the recent appointments to the Supreme Court overlooked senior women judges and lawyers. Despite being the guardian of constitutional morality and equality, the apex court itself reflects a glaring gender imbalance. This article explores the extent of underrepresentation, the opacity in the appointment process, and why diversity on the Bench is not merely symbolic but essential for justice delivery.

    Introduction

    The retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025 created an opportunity to address the deep gender imbalance in India’s Supreme Court. However, with the appointments of Justices Vipul Pancholi and Alok Aradhe, the Court continues to have only one woman judge—Justice B.V. Nagarathna. This exposes both a structural problem in the judicial appointment system and the reluctance to institutionalise gender as a criterion for higher judiciary appointments.

    The significance of gender imbalance in the Supreme Court

    1. Striking underrepresentation: Only 11 women judges out of 287 since 1950 (3.8%).
    2. Missed opportunity: Despite two vacancies in August 2025, no woman judge was appointed.
    3. Historical first ignored: The 2021 Collegium decision appointing three women judges at once raised hope of change, but the momentum has not continued.
    4. Symbolic contradiction: The Court upholds gender equality but does not reflect it internally.

    The historical trajectory of women judges in the Supreme Court

    1. First woman judge: Justice Fathima Beevi (1989).
    2. Trail of appointments: Only 11 till date, with short tenures limiting their influence.
    3. Tenure disparity: Women often appointed at a late stage in career, reducing chances of reaching the Collegium or CJI position.
    4. Upcoming first woman CJI: Justice B.V. Nagarathna, but for only 36 days (Sept–Oct 2027).
    5. Lack of caste and minority representation: Only Justice Fathima Beevi represented a minority faith; no SC/ST woman judge was ever appointed.

    Gender disparity in direct elevation from the Bar

    1. Male dominance: Nine men have been directly elevated from the Bar.
    2. Single woman appointee: Justice Indu Malhotra (2018) was the only woman elevated directly.
    3. Systemic discrimination: Despite women Senior Advocates being present, elevation remains blocked.
    4. Global comparison: Worldwide, the Bar is a major route to the higher judiciary, India lags in enabling women lawyers.

    The opacity of the judicial appointment process

    1. Collegium secrecy: No clarity on criteria or names under consideration.
    2. Inconsistent transparency: Collegium resolutions briefly made public in 2017 under CJI Dipak Misra, but not institutionalised.
    3. Regional and caste factors considered: Yet gender is ignored as a formal category.
    4. Violation of merit claims: Recent appointments skipped senior women High Court judges despite “seniority” being cited in the past as a hurdle.

    The importance of women’s representation on the Bench

    1. Unique perspectives: Women judges bring experiential diversity that shapes judicial outcomes.
    2. Public trust: Greater representation builds confidence in judicial impartiality.
    3. Truly representative court: The SC must reflect India’s social and gender diversity to strengthen legitimacy.
    4. Judicial precedents: The Court itself has mandated 30% reservation for women in Bar Association elections, but has no such rule for its own appointments.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s gender imbalance undermines its constitutional commitment to equality and inclusivity. Unless women are institutionalised as a criterion for judicial appointments, alongside caste, religion, and region, the credibility of India’s top court will remain in question. Representation is not tokenism; it is a constitutional necessity to ensure justice is dispensed through the lens of diversity, fairness, and lived realities.

    Value Addition

    Committees & Reports

    1. Law Commission 230th Report (2009): Recommended adequate representation of women and minorities in higher judiciary.
    2. Justice Verma Committee (2013): Strongly stressed the need for gender diversity in judiciary to handle women-related cases with sensitivity.

    International Comparisons & Norms

    1. Beijing Platform for Action (1995): Calls for women in decision-making positions, including judiciary.
    2. Canada & UK: Women form 40–50% of higher judiciary in recent years.
    3. South Africa: Institutionalised diversity (race + gender) as a mandatory criterion in judicial appointments.

     

  • Unmistakable shift (India signalled a change in foreign policy stance at SCO Summit)

    Introduction

    India’s foreign policy has historically oscillated between balancing great power politics and safeguarding its strategic autonomy. The 2025 SCO Summit in China witnessed a landmark moment: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s first bilateral engagement with Chinese President Xi Jinping since the 2020 military standoff. The visit not only revived dormant dialogues but also underscored India’s shifting posture in a multipolar world marked by U.S. sanctions, instability in West Asia, and contestations within Eurasia.

    Significance of Indian Prime Minister’s Visit to China

    1. Seven-year gap: PM Modi had not travelled to China since 2017, making this a major diplomatic breakthrough.
    2. First bilateral since standoff: Meeting with Xi Jinping was the first since the 2020 military confrontation along the LAC.
    3. Three-year SCO absence: Modi’s return to SCO after three years shows India’s willingness to re-engage with a grouping seen as anti-Western.
    4. Optics of bonhomie: Images with Xi and Putin evoked memories of the inactive Russia-India-China trilateral, signalling recalibration.

    Revival of India-China Bilateral Engagement

    1. Troop disengagement: Both leaders endorsed the normalisation process initiated in October 2024.
    2. Boundary resolution: Agreed to fast-track talks between Special Representatives.
    3. Connectivity revival: Resumption of direct flights and visa facilitation announced.
    4. Economic ties: Leaders stressed on building trade relations to stabilise world commerce.
    5. Mutual trust rhetoric: Modi stressed ties based on “mutual trust, respect and sensitivity”, while Xi used the metaphor of “Dragon and Elephant” coming together.

    External Drivers of India’s Foreign Policy Recalibration

    1. U.S. tariffs and sanctions: American restrictions and mistrust of the Trump administration nudged India to diversify partnerships.
    2. Strategic compulsion: India managed to side-step concerns like China’s support to Pakistan during Operation Sindoor, UNSC/NSG opposition, and shielding of terrorists.
    3. Multipolar optics: India’s engagement at SCO signals balancing between West and Eurasia.

    Key Outcomes of the 2025 SCO Summit

    1. Tianjin declaration: Strong language against cross-border terrorism, including condemnation of the Pahalgam attack (India) and Balochistan attacks (Pakistan).
    2. West Asian crisis: SCO united on humanitarian crisis in Gaza and condemned U.S.-Israeli strikes on Iran.
    3. China’s push: Xi proposed an SCO Development Bank.
    4. India’s push: Modi proposed a Civilisational Dialogue among SCO members.
    5. India’s reservation: Continued opposition to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) paragraph.

    Missed Diplomatic Opportunities at the Summit

    1. Skipped SCO Plus: Indian Prime Minister did not attend the extended “SCO Plus” Summit, limiting engagement with neighbourhood and Global South leaders.
    2. Regional bonding gap: While optics were strong, substantive regional outreach was diluted.

    Conclusion

    The SCO Summit underscored India’s willingness to recalibrate its foreign policy in a changing world order. Modi’s visit after years of distance marked a thaw with China, greater Eurasian engagement, and assertion of India’s independent foreign policy despite U.S. pressures. However, missed opportunities in broader outreach and unresolved trust deficits with China remain cautionary notes.

    Value Addition

    Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

    Historical Background

    1. Successor to: SCO is the successor to the Shanghai Five, formed in 1996 between China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
    2. Formation: Established in 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
    3. Expansion: India and Pakistan joined as full members in 2017; Iran became a member in 2023.
    4. Observers & Dialogue Partners: Afghanistan, Belarus, Mongolia, and others engage as observers; several countries (e.g., Turkey, Sri Lanka) are dialogue partners.

    Strategic Importance of SCO for India

    1. Geopolitical Balancing: Provides a platform to engage with China and Russia while maintaining ties with the West (Quad, U.S.).
    2. Regional Security: Key forum for counter-terrorism cooperation, especially in light of cross-border terrorism and instability in Afghanistan.
    3. Eurasian Connectivity: Enhances India’s presence in Central Asia, a region rich in energy resources.
    4. Multipolar World Order: Strengthens India’s narrative of strategic autonomy and non-alignment in new form.

    Key SCO Mechanisms

    1. Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): Headquartered in Tashkent, focuses on counter-terrorism intelligence sharing.
    2. Economic Cooperation: Proposals for SCO Development Bank, regional trade, and connectivity projects (though India resists BRI-linked initiatives).
    3. Cultural and Civilisational Dialogues: Shared platforms for people-to-people exchanges, education, and cultural diplomacy.

    India’s Challenges within SCO

    1. China Factor: Difficult to expand cooperation given border disputes and China’s Pakistan tilt.
    2. Pakistan Factor: Its membership often leads to diplomatic blockages on issues like terrorism.
    3. BRI Opposition: India consistently refuses to endorse the Belt and Road Initiative, creating friction.
    4. Russia-China Axis: Russia’s growing dependence on China may dilute India’s influence in the bloc.

    Contemporary Relevance

    1. Energy and Trade: Central Asia is crucial for energy diversification; SCO provides a gateway.
    2. Geopolitical Flux: With U.S.-China rivalry and West Asia instability, SCO’s role in Eurasian stability gains importance.
    3. Soft Power Opportunity: India uses SCO to promote civilisational dialogue, yoga, Ayurveda, and cultural diplomacy.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India?

    Linkage: The article directly illustrates the objectives of SCO—counter-terrorism (Tianjin declaration), multipolarity, and Eurasian stability. It highlights India’s balancing act—reviving ties with China, opposing BRI, and pushing for civilisational dialogue. Thus, the SCO Summit outcomes reflect both the scope and constraints of SCO’s importance for India in strategic, economic, and security domains.

  • Appointment of Vice Chancellors by Governor

    Why in the News?

    A recent controversy arose in Kerala, where the Governor (ex-officio Chancellor of State Universities) urged the Supreme Court to exclude the Chief Minister from the process of selecting Vice-Chancellors (VCs).

    Who is the Vice-Chancellor?

    • Position: Serves as Principal Academic and Executive Officer of the university.
    • Functions: Bridges executive and academic wings; ensures compliance with Acts, Statutes, and Regulations.
    • Authority: Chairs key bodies such as the Executive Council, Academic Council, Finance Committee, and Selection Committees.
    • Qualities Emphasized: Historical commissions (Radhakrishnan 1948, Kothari 1964–66, Gnanam 1990, Ramlal Parikh 1993) stressed academic excellence, administrative skill, integrity, and vision.
    • Significance: Maintains quality, relevance, and reform in higher education.

    About the Role of Governor and President in Universities:

    1. State Universities:
      1. Chancellor’s Position: The Governor is ex-officio Chancellor, functioning independently of the State Cabinet in university matters.
      2. VC Appointment: As per UGC Regulations, 2018, the Chancellor appoints Vice-Chancellors from a panel recommended by a Search-cum-Selection Committee.
      3. Legal Supremacy: In conflicts between UGC regulations and State laws, UGC norms prevail under Article 254 of the Constitution.
    2. Central Universities:
      1. Visitor Role: The President of India is the Visitor under the Central Universities Act, 2009.
      2. Chancellor: A ceremonial head, appointed by the President.
      3. VC Appointment: The President selects from a panel suggested by a Search Committee and can demand a fresh panel if unsatisfied.
      4. Oversight Powers: The President can authorize inspections and inquiries into universities.
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

    1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

    2. Appointing the Ministers

    3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

    4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) a) 1 and 2 only (b) b) 1 and 3 only (c) c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Recusal of Judges

    Why in the News?

    A Madhya Pradesh High Court judge has recused himself from hearing a petition in an alleged illegal mining case, saying that a MLA had “attempted to call him” to have a discussion regarding the matter.

    About Recusal:

    • Overview: Recusal is the act of a judge or official abstaining from a case due to conflict of interest or a possible perception of bias.
    • Legal Basis:
      • There are no codified laws, but multiple Supreme Court rulings provide guiding principles.
      • In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India (1987), SC held that the test of bias is the reasonableness of the apprehension in the mind of the affected party.
    • Grounds for Recusal:
      • Prior personal/professional association with a party.
      • Having appeared for a party in the case earlier.
      • Ex parte communications with parties involved.
      • Cases where a judge may be reviewing his own earlier judgment (e.g., SC appeals against HC orders delivered by the same judge earlier).
      • Financial or personal interests (e.g., shareholding in a company party to the case).
    • Underlying Principle: Rooted in the maxim “nemo judex in causa sua” — no one should be a judge in their own cause.

    Process of Recusal:

    • Judge’s Discretion:
      • Decision usually rests with the judge’s conscience and discretion.
      • Judges may orally inform the parties, record it in the order, or sometimes recuse silently without explanation.
    • On Request:
      • Lawyers or parties may request recusal; final decision still rests with the judge.
      • Some judges have recused even without conflict, merely to avoid doubt. Others refuse if no genuine bias exists.
    • Procedure: Once recusal is declared, the case is placed before the Chief Justice for reassignment to another Bench.

    Concerns Related to Recusal:

    • Judicial Independence at Risk: Can be misused by litigants to bench hunt (cherry-pick a judge), undermining judicial impartiality.
    • Lack of Uniform Standards: Absence of formal rules might lead to inconsistent approaches by different judges.
    • Potential for Abuse:
      • Requests for recusal may be used to delay proceedings, intimidate judges, or obstruct justice.
      • This undermines both the integrity of courts and timely justice delivery.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?

    Options:

    (a) The decisions taken by the. Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.

    (b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by the laws made by Parliament.

    (c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.

    (d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.

     

  • In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

    Why in the News?

    A landslide in Sudan’s western Darfur region reportedly wiped out a village, killing an estimated 1,000 people.

    In news: Sudan’s Darfur Region

    About Darfur Region:

    • Location & Size: Western Sudan; borders Chad, Libya, CAR; spans about 493,000 sq. km (nearly France-sized).
    • Geography: Predominantly arid/semi-arid; desert north, fertile south. Highly vulnerable to drought, desertification, and climate change.
    • Administrative Units: Divided into five states — North, South, West, Central, East Darfur.
    • Demographics: Mixed ethnic groups — Arab pastoralists and non-Arab farming communities.
    • Capital: El Fasher, main hub for administration, economy, and humanitarian operations.

    Ongoing Conflict & Crisis:

    • Origins of Uprising: Armed rebellion began in 2003 (SLM, JEM) against political and economic marginalization.
    • Janjaweed & RSF: Janjaweed militias, accused of genocide and ethnic cleansing, later evolved into Rapid Support Forces (RSF), now central to instability.
    • Humanitarian Crisis: Since 2003, region has seen mass killings, displacement, refugee flows, ranked among the worst global humanitarian crises.
    • Current Instability: Renewed 2023 violence between RSF and rival groups worsened agriculture, aid, and governance.
    • Regional Impact: Conflict spills into Chad and CAR, destabilizing the Sahel region.
    • Natural Disasters: Alongside conflict, disasters like the 2025 Darfur landslide (~1,000 deaths) add to human suffering.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: There is instability and worsening security situation in the Sahel region.

    Statement-II: There have been military takeovers/coups d’état in several countries of the Sahel region in the recent past.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

    a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

    b) Bothe Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

    c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

    d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

     

  • RTE Act and Minority Educational Institutions

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has referred to a larger Bench the question of whether Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs) are completely exempt from the purview of the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009.

    About Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs):

    • Constitutional Basis:
      • Article 30(1) grants religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
      • Article 29 protects their cultural and educational rights.
    • Legal Framework:
      • Defined under the National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) Act, 2004.
      • The NCMEI adjudicates disputes, grants recognition, and safeguards the autonomy of such institutions.
    • Recognized Minority Communities: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) are notified as minorities by the Government of India.
    • Judicial Principles:
      • In T.M.A. Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002), SC held that minority status is determined state-wise, not nationally.
      • Minority institutions can reserve seats for their community and enjoy greater control over administration and recruitment.
    • Purpose and Role:
      • Preserve the cultural, linguistic, and religious heritage of minority groups.
      • Provide quality education with constitutional protection from excessive state interference.

    What is the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009?

    • Genesis: Stemming from Unnikrishnan vs. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993), where SC declared education as a Fundamental Right under Article 21.
      • Later given constitutional backing through the 86th Amendment Act (2002), which inserted Article 21A – free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years.
    • Enactment: To operationalize Article 21A, Parliament passed the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Free and compulsory education for all children aged 6–14 in a neighbourhood school.
      • 25% reservation in private schools for children from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections.
      • No detention, expulsion, or board exams up to Class VIII (amended in 2019 to allow states discretion).
      • Teacher norms: TET (Teachers Eligibility Test) qualification mandatory; ban on private tuitions by teachers.
      • School Management Committees (SMCs): Parents, local authority reps, and teachers oversee school functioning.
      • Curriculum & Standards: Developed by an academic authority (often NCERT/SCERT).
    • Amendments:
      • 2012: Included children with disabilities; exempted minority/religious institutions.
      • 2019: Abolished uniform “no-detention policy,” left to states’ choice.

     

    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.

    2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.

    3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

     

  • In news: Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court intervened after Tamil Nadu faced ₹3,000+ crore reimbursements to private schools for economically disadvantaged students’ admissions, as the Centre declined to share costs under Samagra Shiksha.

    About Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan:

    • Launch & Integration: Started in 2018 (by then Ministry of HRD), integrating Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE) into one holistic programme.
    • Benchmark Feature: Treats schooling as a continuous system from pre-primary to Class XII (ages 4–18), removing silos.
    • Funding Pattern: A Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Centre–State sharing (60:40, 90:10 for NE/hilly states), implemented via a single State Implementation Society (SIS).
    • Policy Alignment: Aligned with NEP 2020 and UN SDG-4 (quality education).
    • Coverage: 1.16 million schools, 156+ million students, 5.7 million teachers across government & aided institutions.
    • Upgraded Phase: Samagra Shiksha 2.0 (2021–26) with focus on digital education, vocational training, FLN, and inclusion.

    Key Features of the Scheme:

    • Unified Structure: One umbrella for pre-primary to Class XII, ensuring coherent planning.
    • Teachers & Technology:
      • Continuous teacher training via SCERTs, DIETs, NISHTHA, SWAYAM.
      • Digital initiatives: DIKSHA, Operation Digital Board, ICT labs, smart classrooms, AI-based learning tools.
    • Foundational Literacy & Numeracy: NIPUN Bharat Mission (ages 3–9) for universal reading & numeracy.
    • Vocational & Skill Education: Subjects like coding, robotics, financial literacy, AI with 1000+ training centres (from Class VI).
    • Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT): Uniforms, textbooks, transport allowance directly credited via IT platforms.
    • Holistic Development: Integration of sports, physical education, self-defence, soft skills under Khelo India.
    • Funding Scale: Allocation crossed ₹41,000 crore (2025); nationwide coverage till March 2026 under Samagra Shiksha 2.0.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’?

    Options: (a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

    (b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

    (c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions in order to make India a scientific and technological Power.

    (d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

     

  • The importance of India’s federal design

    Introduction

    India’s federal design is unique, balancing a strong Union with an inclusive representation of States. The abrogation of Article 370 and the downgrading of Jammu and Kashmir into a Union Territory in 2019 raised critical constitutional and political debates. The Supreme Court’s December 2023 ruling upheld the abrogation but directed restoration of statehood. While elections were held in October 2024, the absence of progress on restoring statehood highlights a sharp tension between constitutional intent and political practice. The issue has become a litmus test of Indian federalism, bringing into focus the balance between unity, diversity, and democratic representation.

    The Demand for Restoration of Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir

    1. Supreme Court Intervention: Recently, the Court sought a detailed response from the Centre on the timeline for restoring statehood to J&K.
    2. Sharp Contrast: While elections were held in 2024, statehood has not been restored, despite the Court’s explicit direction.
    3. Federal Implications: Critics argue that prolonged delay undermines federalism, part of the Constitution’s basic structure, and weakens democratic rights of J&K’s citizens.
    4. Striking Point: For the first time, a full-fledged State was downgraded into a Union Territory, setting a precedent that challenges constitutional norms.

    Constitutional Processes for the Creation of States

    1. Admission: Admission of new States requires an organised political unit; e.g., J&K’s Instrument of Accession (1947).
    2. Establishment: Territory can be acquired under international law, as in the case of Goa and Sikkim.
    3. Formation: Article 3 empowers Parliament to reorganise existing States by altering boundaries, names, or creating new ones.

    India’s Federal Design and Its Unique Character

    1. Union of States: Article 1 describes India as a Union of States, signifying indivisibility while denying the right of secession.
    2. Composite Culture: The dual identity of India and Bharat reflects political unity and cultural plurality.
    3. Unitary Tilt: The word Union ensures a strong Centre, but representation of States through the Rajya Sabha balances federalism.
    4. Basic Structure Doctrine: Federalism is recognised as part of the Basic Structure, making it inviolable.

    Constitutional Imperatives for Restoring Statehood

    1. Violation of Federal Features: The Union can reorganise States but cannot permanently strip a State into a Union Territory.
    2. Supreme Court’s Directive: In December 2023, the Court mandated restoration of statehood along with Assembly elections.
    3. Representation at the Centre: Permanent representation of States in the Rajya Sabha is essential to sustain India’s federalism.
    4. Erosion of Trust: Prolonged delay risks alienating citizens and eroding India’s image as a welfare-oriented union.

    The Road Ahead for Jammu and Kashmir

    1. Elections Held: A 90-member Assembly election was conducted in October 2024.
    2. Centre’s Silence: No concrete roadmap has been shared for restoring statehood, despite judicial directions.
    3. Critics’ Argument: Restoring statehood would empower the elected government, reducing the powers of the Lieutenant Governor, which the Union may be reluctant to cede.
    4. Constitutional Morality: Failure to restore statehood risks weakening the principle of cooperative federalism.

    Conclusion

    The demand for restoration of J&K’s statehood is not a mere political debate but a constitutional necessity. India’s federal design hinges upon the delicate balance between a strong Union and empowered States. If the Union delays restoration indefinitely, it risks setting a precedent that erodes the sanctity of federalism and weakens democratic representation. Upholding statehood is thus not only about J&K but about preserving the essence of India’s constitutional federation.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] Though the federal principle is dominant in our Constitution and that principle is one of its basic features, but it is equally true that federalism under the Indian Constitution leans in favour of a strong Centre, a feature that militates against the concept of strong federalism. Discuss.

    Linkage: The recent controversy over the restoration of statehood to Jammu & Kashmir directly exemplifies the asymmetry in India’s federal design. While federalism is a part of the Basic Structure, the downgrading of a full-fledged State into a Union Territory shows the unitary tilt of the Constitution. The Supreme Court’s directive to restore statehood reflects the tension between a strong Centre ensuring unity and the need to preserve the spirit of cooperative federalism, echoing the very debate raised in the 2014 question.