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GS Paper: GS2

  • A joint and new journey along the SCO pathway

    Introduction

    The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), now the largest regional grouping after 24 years of evolution, witnessed its biggest summit in Tianjin with 23 countries and 10 international organisations participating. The presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping signalled a possible recalibration of bilateral ties amid a tense global order. This summit was not only about regional security but also about shaping global governance, fostering sustainable development, and exploring new pathways of cooperation.

    Why in the News

    The Tianjin SCO Summit is in the news because it marked the largest gathering in SCO’s history and produced high-yielding outcomes, such as the creation of security centres, a development bank, and long-term strategies in energy, green industry, and digital economy. Importantly, India and China engaged in dialogue during the diamond jubilee year of China-India diplomatic ties, projecting partnership rather than rivalry. This reflects a striking shift from the border tensions that have dominated headlines in recent years, positioning the summit as a turning point in regional cooperation and global governance.

    High-Yield Outcomes of the Tianjin Summit

    1. Tianjin Declaration: Announced creation of four security centres, including an Anti-drug Center and a Universal Countering Security Challenges Center.
    2. SCO Development Bank: Decision to set up a regional bank to finance cooperative projects.
    3. Fair Stance on Trade: SCO states collectively defended multilateral trading systems and WWII legacy.
    4. 10-Year Strategy: Leaders adopted a development strategy for the next decade.
    5. China’s Initiatives: Xi announced three platforms for energy, green industry, and digital economy; and three centres for innovation, higher education, and vocational training.

    How the Summit Shaped Global Governance

    1. Global Governance Initiative: Xi proposed principles such as sovereign equality, international rule of law, and multilateralism.
    2. People-Centered Approach: Emphasis on real actions for peace and justice.
    3. Leadership Platform: SCO positioned as a space to counter the “governance deficit” in world politics.

    India’s Role in the SCO

    1. Active Member since 2017: India has advanced SCO’s development agenda.
    2. Support for Presidency: India extended full support to China’s SCO presidency.
    3. Areas of Cooperation: Security, energy, green industry, and digital economy identified as convergence points.

    75 Years of India-China Ties

    1. Anniversary Diplomacy: Modi and Xi stressed partnership over rivalry.
    2. Dragon and Elephant Metaphor: Xi urged for “dragon and elephant to dance together.”
    3. Consensus vs Disagreement: Leaders agreed that consensus outweighs differences.

    Road Ahead for Bilateral Cooperation

    1. Strategic Mutual Trust: Resume dialogue mechanisms, embrace peaceful coexistence, and mutual respect.
    2. Expanding Exchanges: Focus on trade, investment, technology, culture, and people-to-people bonds.
    3. Good-Neighbourliness: Reinforce Panchsheel principles, keep border differences from overshadowing wider relations.
    4. Global South Leadership: India and China to lead BRICS presidencies, resist hegemony, and promote fairness in world order.

    Conclusion

    The Tianjin Summit reflects a recalibration of SCO’s role as a platform for regional stability and global governance. For India, it marks a moment of balancing rivalry with cooperation in ties with China. If trust and exchanges are consolidated, India-China relations can shape the future of Asia and the Global South. The challenge lies in ensuring border disputes do not overshadow wider opportunities.

    Value Addition

    Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 

    • Establishment: Permanent intergovernmental organisation founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Predecessor: Shanghai Five (1996).
    • Charter: Adopted in 2002 (St. Petersburg), in force since 2003, laying down goals, principles, and structure.
    • Goals:
      • Strengthen trust, friendship, good-neighbourliness.
      • Promote cooperation in politics, economy, science, culture, education, energy, environment, etc.
      • Maintain peace, security, stability in the region.
      • Promote a fair, democratic international order.
    • Principles (Shanghai Spirit): Mutual trust, benefit, equality, consultation, respect for civilizational diversity, common development; externally—non-alignment, openness, non-targeting others.
    • Structure:
      • Council of Heads of State (CHS) – supreme body (annual).
      • Council of Heads of Government (CHG) – economic strategy, budget (annual).
      • Numerous sectoral mechanisms.
    • Permanent Bodies: Secretariat (Beijing) & Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS, Tashkent).
    • Membership:
      • 10 Members – India, China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
      • 2 Observers – Afghanistan, Mongolia.
      • 14 Dialogue Partners – incl. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Maldives, etc.

    Key Takeaways from SCO Summit 2025

    • 24 Documents Approved – including Tianjin Declaration and SCO Development Strategy till 2035.
    • Security Cooperation – agreement on SCO Anti-Drug Center and Universal Center for Countering Challenges & Threats.
    • Counter-Terrorism – joint declaration condemned Pahalgam (India), Jaffer Express & Khuzdar (Pakistan) terrorist attacks – significant as Pahalgam was earlier omitted.
    • Membership Expansion – Lao PDR granted Dialogue Partner status; CIS given Observer status.
    • Cultural Capital – Cholpon-Ata (Kyrgyzstan) designated SCO Tourist & Cultural Capital (2025–26).
    • Civilisation Dialogue Forum – proposed by PM Modi to strengthen people-to-people ties & civilizational exchange.
    • Global Governance Initiative – proposed by Xi Jinping for multilateralism, just & equitable order, Global South leadership.
    • SCO Chairmanship – passed to Kyrgyz Republic (2025–26) with theme: “25 years of SCO: together for a stable world, development, prosperity.”

    What SCO Means for India’s Global and Regional Interests

    1. Strategic Pillars – PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision as S–Security, C–Connectivity, O–Opportunity.
    2. Central Asia Engagement – SCO provides a rare forum to deepen ties with resource-rich Central Asia and expand India’s role as a pan-Asian player beyond the South Asian paradigm.
    3. Counter-Terrorism – Access to the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) helps India with intelligence-sharing against the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, extremism), beyond Pakistan-centric frameworks.
    4. India–Russia Cooperation – SCO strengthens Delhi’s strategic proximity with Moscow, which backed India’s full membership in 2016.
    5. Balancing China – India’s presence acts as a countervailing force to Chinese dominance in Eurasia, supported by Russia.
    6. BRI Opposition – India continues to reject the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as it passes through Pakistan-occupied territory, asserting sovereignty concerns.
    7. Diplomatic Battlefield – While enabling multilateral engagement, SCO also reflects great-power rivalries, making it both an opportunity and a challenge for India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.’ In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating the problems.

    Linkage: The SCO faces internal strains due to rivalries among major members, including China-Pakistan ties and regional security tensions. India has sought to mitigate these by emphasizing its three-pillared approach of Security, Connectivity, and Opportunity, pushing for counter-terrorism cooperation through RATS, and resisting divisive projects like BRI while promoting dialogue, civilizational exchange, and balanced economic engagement. Thus, India positions itself as a stabilizing force to preserve SCO’s collective agenda despite conflicts.

  • Himachal Pradesh declared to be ‘Fully Literate’

    Why in the News?

    Himachal Pradesh was recently declared a ‘fully literate’ state, becoming the 5th State/UT after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

    Various Definitions of Literacy / Full Literacy:

    • Ministry of Education (MoE) Definition: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, along with digital literacy and financial literacy as critical life skills.
    • Full Literacy (MoE): A State/Union Territory (UT) is considered fully literate at 95% literacy rate.
    • Census of India (2011): Any person aged 7 years or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate. Ability to read without writing is NOT counted as literacy.
    • ULLAS Programme: Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society launched in 2022. Literacy here means acquiring foundational skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic plus functional knowledge like time, currency, and digital use.
    • NILP: New India Literacy Programme (centrally sponsored, aligned with NEP 2020). Defines full literacy as achieving ≥95% literacy rate certified via assessments.

    How is Literacy attained under ULLAS / NILP?

    • Target Group: Adults (15+) who missed formal schooling are identified through door-to-door surveys or other state data.
    • Basic Training: Learners are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic (up to Class 3 level), along with practical skills like using calendars, reading time, handling currency/cheques, and making safe digital transactions.
    • Delivery Mechanism: Training delivered through the ULLAS mobile app or offline by student volunteers and community workers.
    • Assessment: Learners appear for FLNAT (Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test), a 150-mark test available in regional languages.
    • Certification: On passing FLNAT, learners are certified by the NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) as literate.
    • Outcome: States/UTs are declared ‘fully literate’ when identified non-literates clear FLNAT and the literacy rate crosses the 95% threshold.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’ ?

    Options:

    (a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

    (b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

    (c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions to make India a scientific and technological Power.

    (d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

     

  • Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    Why in the News?

    Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.

    Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?

    • Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
    • Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
    • Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
    • Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
    • Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
    • Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.

    Geopolitical Significance:

    • Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
    • Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.

    Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”

    Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Decisive step (Including Aadhar as 12th document for voter verification)

    Introduction

    The right to vote is one of the most fundamental expressions of citizenship in a democracy. However, procedural rigidity in electoral roll revisions often results in the exclusion of genuine electors. Recently, the Supreme Court intervened decisively in Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, directing the inclusion of Aadhaar as one of the 12 valid documents for voter verification. With over 65 lakh voters already struck off from Bihar’s draft rolls, this judgment is a crucial corrective step ensuring that the processes of democracy do not become instruments of exclusion.

    Significance of the Supreme Court’s Decision

    1. Judicial clarity: The Supreme Court dismantled the ECI’s argument that Aadhaar is proof of residency, not citizenship, by highlighting that most other accepted documents (e.g., ration card, driving license) also do not conclusively establish citizenship.
    2. Preventing mass exclusion: With nearly 90% of Bihar’s population holding Aadhaar versus only 2% holding passports, excluding Aadhaar would have disenfranchised a vast number of eligible voters, especially the poor and marginalised.
    3. Correcting anomalies: The Hindu’s statistical analysis of the exclusion revealed disproportionate impacts and that women were removed in large numbers, death rates appeared statistically improbable, and questionable “permanent shifts” particularly affected migrants and married women.

    Implications of the Judgment for Voter Inclusivity

    1. Lifeline for excluded electors: Over 65 lakh voters struck off the draft rolls now have a viable route back through Aadhaar verification.
    2. Support for existing electors: Even those already on the rolls needing document verification benefit from Aadhaar’s inclusion.
    3. Validation of civil society concerns: The Court’s order vindicates activists and political groups who warned that excluding Aadhaar contradicted earlier judicial guidance and created practical hurdles.

    Challenges Exposed in the Election Commission’s Process

    1. Questionable reasoning: The ECI insisted Aadhaar was inadmissible, despite its wide acceptance in governance systems.
    2. Haste over accuracy: The rushed SIR process compromised diligence, undermining the credibility of voter rolls.
    3. Patterns of exclusion: Disproportionate impact on marginalised groups like migrant workers and married women reveals systemic flaws.

    National Precedent Established by the Ruling

    1. Uniform standards: This ruling is not limited to Bihar but extends to future electoral revisions across India.
    2. Balance between accuracy and inclusivity: It forces the ECI to reorient its approach towards humane, diligent verification.
    3. Strengthening democracy: Electoral rolls form the foundation of free and fair elections; inclusivity ensures democratic legitimacy.

    Future Expectations from the Election Commission of India

    1. House-to-house verification: A more thorough, grassroots-level approach to ensure accuracy.
    2. Inclusive procedures: Processes must prevent the disenfranchisement of genuine voters, especially the vulnerable.
    3. Aligning with practical realities: Aadhaar, as the most widely held identity document, should be part of India’s democratic processes.

    Way Forward

    • Strengthening Verification Mechanisms
      1. Conduct comprehensive house-to-house verification to avoid wrongful deletions.
      2. Use technology-enabled checks (biometric authentication with Aadhaar, but with strong safeguards for privacy).
    • Ensuring Inclusivity
      1. Simplify documentation requirements for vulnerable groups (migrants, women, senior citizens).
      2. Provide doorstep assistance for voter registration in rural and marginalised areas.
    • Institutional Strengthening of ECI
      1. Enhance independence, transparency, and accountability of the Election Commission.
      2. Establish an independent audit mechanism to regularly review voter roll revisions.
    • Legal and Policy Reforms
      1. Consider amendments to the Representation of People Act to clarify permissible use of Aadhaar and protect against misuse.
      2. Align electoral processes with Supreme Court jurisprudence on Aadhaar to balance convenience with rights.
    • Public Awareness and Participation
      1. Encourage civil society participation in monitoring electoral rolls.
      2. Launch mass awareness campaigns to educate voters on their rights and available documentation.
    • Long-Term Electoral Reform Agenda
      1. Explore remote voting mechanisms for migrant workers.
      2. Move towards integrated digital electoral rolls across states for consistency.
      3. Institutionalise regular, transparent consultations between ECI, political parties, and judiciary.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s directive to include Aadhaar in voter verification is more than a legal clarification; it is a democratic safeguard. By preventing procedural exclusion and ensuring accessibility, the judgment reaffirms India’s commitment to universal suffrage. For the ECI, the challenge now lies in balancing diligence with inclusivity, creating an electoral roll that truly reflects India’s diverse citizenry.

    Value Addition

    Constitutional & Legal Dimensions:

    • Article 326: Guarantees universal adult suffrage, forming the foundation of electoral democracy.
    • Article 14 & 21: Ensure equality and due process — mass exclusion from voter rolls would violate these.
    • Representation of People Act, 1951: Governs electoral rolls, voter eligibility, and disqualification.

    Case Laws:

    1. PUCL v. Union of India (2003) – Recognised “right to know” of voters.
    2. Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006) – Stressed on the principle of electoral integrity.
    3. Supreme Court Aadhaar Judgments (2018) – Aadhaar can be used for welfare and verification, but cannot be made mandatory for all purposes.

    Committees & Reports:

    1. Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Highlighted need for free and fair elections as cornerstone of democracy.
    2. Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2008): Stressed inclusivity and transparency in voter registration.
    3. Law Commission of India (255th Report, 2015): Recommended linkage of voter databases with Aadhaar for accuracy, subject to safeguards.

    Democratic Governance & Inclusivity:

    1. Inclusivity vs. Accuracy: Electoral reforms must balance weeding out bogus voters with preventing disenfranchisement of genuine citizens.
    2. Marginalised Communities: Migrants, women, and the poor are disproportionately affected by procedural rigidity — their access must be prioritised.

    Comparative Insight:

    1. USA: Struggles with strict voter ID laws that disproportionately affect minorities.
    2. Canada: Allows multiple identification options to avoid disenfranchisement.
    3. India’s Aadhaar: A unique digital identity tool with near-universal coverage (~90%), giving India an advantage in inclusive electoral reforms.

    Ethical Perspective (GS 4 angle)

    1. Principle of Justice: Fair opportunity for every citizen to vote.
    2. Procedural Fairness: Electoral rules must not arbitrarily exclude individuals.
    3. Democratic Accountability: ECI must uphold public trust by ensuring inclusivity in its procedures.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?

    Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on including Aadhaar as a valid voter verification document directly relates to the broader debate on electoral reforms. Just as the ECI’s 2016 reform proposals sought to strengthen inclusivity and transparency, this judgment ensures that procedural rigidity does not erode democratic participation. Both highlight the evolving role of the ECI in balancing accuracy, accessibility, and fairness in India’s electoral process.

  • Why is Kathmandu Burning

    Introduction

    On September 8–9, 2025, Nepal plunged into chaos as protests led by Generation Z escalated into violent clashes with security forces. What began as outrage against corruption and a controversial ban on 26 social media platforms quickly spiraled into a mass uprising that engulfed Kathmandu in flames. Former Prime Ministers’ homes were torched, ministers stripped and paraded, and jails broken open. With PM K P Sharma Oli’s resignation and President Ram Chandra Poudel in hiding, the nation faced a constitutional vacuum, raising concerns about the Army’s role and India’s strategic interests. This is the first major political uprising in Nepal led entirely by Gen Z — teenagers and youth born between 1996–2012. Unlike the Maoist insurgency of the past, this revolt was spontaneous, digitally mobilized, and directed against all senior political leaders.

    Generation Z and the Rise of Political Discontent

    1. Generation Z Mobilisation: The uprising was driven by youth anger at corruption, lack of jobs, and entrenched political elites since 2008.
    2. Digital Trigger: Outrage exploded after the government banned 26 social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, X, etc.), cutting off their main channel of solidarity.
    3. Symbolic Rage: Anger was also directed at “Nepo Kids” — the privileged lifestyles of politicians’ children.
    4. Immediate Demands: Reinstatement of social media (achieved), broader demand for accountability and jobs.

    The Escalation of Protests into Violence

    1. State Response: Security forces fired on protesters, killing 19 young people, triggering mass fury.
    2. Attack on Leaders: Houses of five former Prime Ministers were torched (Oli, Prachanda, Madhav Kumar Nepal, Jhala Nath Khanal, Sher Bahadur Deuba).
    3. Fatalities: Rajyalaxmi Chitrakar (wife of ex-PM Khanal) died from burns; former PM Deuba and his wife (Foreign Minister Arzu Deuba) were assaulted.
    4. Dramatic Incidents: Protesters freed Rabi Lamichhane, a jailed critic of Oli, by burning Nakkhu Jail.
    5. Humiliation of Ministers: Finance Minister Bishnu Prasad Paudel and MP Eknath Dhakal were stripped and paraded.

    Leadership Vacuum and Constitutional Crisis

    1. PM’s Resignation: K P Sharma Oli resigned; President Poudel went into hiding.
    2. Army’s Stance: Army Chief Gen. Ashok Raj Sigdel urged calm, took charge of security, but avoided assuming political power.
    3. Possibility of Interim Government: Likely after negotiations with figures like Kathmandu Mayor Balen Shah, a Gen Z icon.
    4. Constitutional Crisis: Possibility of Parliament dissolution and collapse of 2015 Constitution.

    The Expanding Role of the Nepal Army

    1. Security Role: The Army has assumed charge of law and order.
    2. Political Caution: Unlike in past coups, the Army seems hesitant to directly seize political power.
    3. Facilitator Role: Likely to mediate between political leaders, ensure reconciliation, and protect civilian lives.

    Opposition in Disarray Amidst Youth Revolt

    1. Targeted Equally: All senior leaders, across party lines, faced wrath of protesters.
    2. Rising Leaders: Balen Shah (Mayor of Kathmandu, ex-rapper) and Rabi Lamichhane (RSP leader, ex-TV anchor) emerged as youth-backed alternatives.
    3. Monarchy Revival?: Former King Gyanendra Shah offered condolences, appealed for dialogue, subtly signaling a willingness to return to relevance.

    India’s Strategic Concerns Amidst Nepal’s Crisis

    1. Strategic Concern: India is deeply worried, given historical ties, open border, and Nepali diaspora in India.
    2. Delicate Position: India is seen as partisan since it backed Maoists and republicanism in 2008.
    3. Official Statement: PM Narendra Modi chaired the CCS meeting, stressing “stability, peace, and prosperity of Nepal” as vital for India.

    Conclusion

    Nepal’s Gen Z uprising marks the collapse of public trust in traditional politics and signals a generational shift. The combination of digital mobilization, corruption fatigue, and joblessness has produced an explosion that could reshape Nepal’s political order. For India, the crisis is both a challenge and an opportunity, a chance to rebuild goodwill through balanced diplomacy, while avoiding the mistakes of the past. The coming weeks will determine whether Nepal stabilizes through reconciliation or descends into prolonged instability.

    Value Addition

    Similarities between the recent Nepal Gen Z uprising (2025) and the Bangladesh student–youth revolution (July 2024) that toppled Sheikh Hasina’s government

    • Youth at the Centre
      1. Nepal: Led by Gen Z (born 1996–2012), angry at corruption, nepotism, and joblessness.
      2. Bangladesh: Led by students and young professionals, who launched protests against the quota system in government jobs, symbolising a deeper anger at authoritarianism.
      3. Similarity: In both, young people with no political baggage spearheaded the movement, showing a generational rejection of “old guard” politics.
    • Trigger through State Suppression
      1. Nepal: Anger exploded after government banned 26 social media platforms, silencing digital expression. Police firing killed 19 protesters, escalating violence.
      2. Bangladesh: Crackdowns on student protests with police brutality, tear gas, and arrests deepened the rage, leading to street battles.
      3. Similarity: In both cases, excessive state repression transformed peaceful protests into mass uprisings.
    • Anti-Elite and Anti-Nepotism Sentiment
      1. Nepal: Rage directed at “Nepo Kids”, children of politicians flaunting wealth and privilege.
      2. Bangladesh: Rage at the dynastic, 15-year-long rule of Sheikh Hasina, seen as nepotistic and authoritarian.
      3. Similarity: Both were anti-nepotism revolts, targeting corruption and political entrenchment.
    • Use of Digital Platforms for Mobilisation
      1. Nepal: Movement grew around Facebook pages like Next Generation Nepal, until banned.
      2. Bangladesh: Students used Facebook, X, and YouTube to coordinate protests, live-stream crackdowns, and rally global support.
      3. Similarity: Social media was the fuel of mobilisation, and attempts to suppress it only intensified anger.
    • Collapse of Established Order
      1. Nepal: PM K P Sharma Oli resigned, President went into hiding, houses of former PMs burned, Parliament dysfunctional.
      2. Bangladesh: PM Sheikh Hasina fled the country, Awami League leaders attacked, and Parliament dissolved.
      3. Similarity: Both witnessed a sudden collapse of political order, with leadership vacuum and uncertainty about interim arrangements.
    • Regional & International Concerns
      1. Nepal: India held a CCS meeting, worried about instability on its borders; China also watching closely.
      2. Bangladesh: India was concerned due to historic ties with Hasina, while the West pushed for democratic restoration.
      3. Similarity: In both, India was caught in a delicate diplomatic dilemma — balancing neutrality while protecting its strategic interests.

    Conclusion

    Both revolutions represent a South Asian pattern of youth-led, anti-elite uprisings, where corruption, joblessness, authoritarianism, and digital repression pushed Gen Z to revolt. They show that in fragile democracies, youth disillusionment can quickly destabilize entrenched regimes. For India, these crises in its immediate neighbourhood are warnings: political stability next door is fragile, and managing relations requires delicate, balanced diplomacy.

    Value Addition (II)

    • Comparative Lens: Similar to Arab Spring (2011) — youth-led, social media-driven protests.
    • Theory: Youth Bulge Hypothesis — large unemployed youth populations often drive political instability.
    • Reports: UNDP South Asia Human Development Report highlights youth aspirations and governance deficits.
    • Ethics (GS4): Crisis of legitimacy in governance when corruption and inequality erode public trust.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged constitutional logjam in Nepal.

    Linkage: The 2012 question on Nepal’s constitutional logjam highlighted elite disputes over federalism and governance. The 2025 Gen Z uprising reflects how these unresolved issues have now spilled onto the streets, creating a constitutional vacuum. What was once a parliamentary deadlock has transformed into a popular revolt against the entire political class, deepening Nepal’s democratic fragility.

  • [pib] Universal Postal Union (UPU)

    Why in the News?

    At the 28th Universal Postal Congress in Dubai (2025), the Union Minister for Communications has unveiled the Unified Payments Interface (UPI)- UPU Integration Project.

    About Universal Postal Union (UPU):

    • Overview: A UN specialized agency and the primary forum for international postal cooperation.
    • Establishment: Created by the Treaty of Bern (1874). It is the second oldest international organization (after CCNR, 1815).
    • Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland.

    • Membership:

      • 192 member countries (as of 2025).
      • Any UN member state can join automatically.
      • Non-UN states may join with two-thirds approval from members.
      • India is a member since 1876.

    • Structure:

      • Congress: Supreme authority meets every 4 years.
      • Council of Administration (CA): Supervises activities between Congress sessions; studies regulatory and administrative issues.
      • Postal Operations Council (POC): Technical/operational body of 48 elected members.
      • International Bureau: Secretariat providing logistical and technical support.

    • Functions:

      • Coordinates postal policies across nations.
      • Sets rules for international mail exchanges.
      • Makes recommendations to boost global mail, parcel, and financial services.
      • Acts as advisory, mediator, and technical support agency for postal systems.

    Significance of the UPI–UPU Integration:

    • For India:

      • Strengthens India’s global leadership in digital payments innovation.
      • Positions India as a hub for low-cost remittance solutions.

    • For Global Postal System:

      • Adds digital financial services to the traditional postal network, enhancing its relevance in the digital era.
      • Strengthens India–UPU cooperation and demonstrates India’s ability to combine fintech innovation with global multilateral platforms.

    • For Migrants:

      • Enables fast, affordable, and secure cross-border remittances through post offices.
      • Reduces dependence on high-cost traditional remittance channels.
    [UPSC 2004] Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    List I (Agency)

    (A) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (B) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (C) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (D) Universal Postal Union (DPU)

    List II (Headquarters) 1. Nairobi 2. Vienna 3. Berne 4. New York

    Options: (a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 4 1 2 3 (c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 4 3 2 1*

     

  • [9th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Iran and India, ancient civilizations and new horizons

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    Linkage: The article’s emphasis on Iran’s resilience against Western domination, its right to peaceful nuclear energy, and India–Iran civilisational partnership directly connects to the US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy. Sanctions and U.S. pressure affect India’s energy security, INSTC access, and strategic autonomy. Thus, India’s calibrated diplomacy in balancing ties with both Iran and the West becomes central to safeguarding its national interest.

    Mentor’s Comment

    In the midst of global flux, Ambassador Iraj Elahi’s reflections on Iran–India relations remind us that ancient civilisations have the potential to shape modern geopolitics in profound ways. This piece dissects his arguments, from the erosion of Western dominance to the rise of South-South cooperation, and places them in the larger canvas of India’s foreign policy and civilisational outreach. For UPSC aspirants, it offers deep insights into international relations, civilisation studies, and contemporary global order debates.

    Introduction

    The global order is in transition. Once dominated by Western powers, especially the United States, the world now witnesses a shift toward multipolarity. The unchecked use of force, sanctions, and manipulation of global institutions by the West has weakened its legitimacy. In this changing landscape, ancient civilisations such as India and Iran are being called upon to offer not only an alternative but a humane, participatory and just global order. Their shared values of spirituality, peace, and cultural resilience form the foundation of this partnership.

    The Crisis of the Western-led Order

    1. Declining dominance: The West, especially the U.S., is losing control over its classic instruments, global finance, technological monopoly, human rights discourse, and global media.
    2. Crisis indicators: Blatant violations of international law, unchecked use of force, trade wars, and environmental destruction signal deep systemic decay.

    Why the Global South is Rising

    1. Civilisational awakening: Countries are resisting domination and discrimination by relying on local models and indigenous technology.
    2. Strategic autonomy: Defence and security strengthening in Global South nations marks a push against dependence on external powers.
    3. India and Iran as torchbearers: Both ancient civilisations embody resilience — from India’s Non-Aligned Movement to Iran’s Islamic Revolution.

    Civilisational Wisdom and Shared Values

    1. Cultural resilience: Despite military defeats, both India and Iran influenced their conquerors with governance, literature, and art.
    2. Shared ethos: Belief in the triumph of good over evil, respect for diversity, spiritual growth, and commitment to peace.
    3. Historical struggles: India’s anti-colonial resistance and Iran’s oil nationalisation highlight their fight against domination.

    Palestine and the Question of Justice

    1. Central issue: The Palestinian struggle is projected as the frontline battle of the Global South against Western hypocrisy.
    2. Iran’s stance: Defence of Palestine and its right to nuclear energy are framed as defences of sovereignty and law.
    3. Global South solidarity: Palestine becomes a metaphor for resistance against occupation and expansionism.

    India–Iran in Multilateral and Regional Frameworks

    1. BRICS potential: Seen as a counterweight to Western economic dominance, sanctions, and dollar hegemony.
    2. INSTC: More than a trade corridor; envisioned as a civilisational bridge linking Eurasia, Africa, and South Asia, with stabilising effects on West Asia.
    3. Opposition to U.S. role: Iran critiques American interventions in West Asia and South Asia for fuelling instability and terrorism.

    Conclusion

    As the world transitions into multipolarity, the call for civilisational powers such as India and Iran to lead is both symbolic and strategic. Their partnership, rooted in resilience, peace, and spiritual values, has the potential to redefine the Global South’s trajectory. By working through BRICS, INSTC, and other platforms, they can craft a participatory global order, one that replaces domination with dignity, and hierarchy with equality.

    Value Addition

    India-Iran Relations

    Historical & Civilisational Links

    1. Ancient ties: Both are among the world’s oldest civilisations, with exchanges in philosophy, art, architecture, and literature.
    2. Cultural influence: Persian language, miniature painting, Sufi traditions, and Mughal architecture in India reflect deep Iranian impact.
    3. Shared values: Spirituality, diversity, peace, and civilisational resilience.

    Strategic & Economic Cooperation

    1. Energy security:
      • Iran was once India’s second-largest crude oil supplier.
      • Post-U.S. sanctions, imports dropped, but Iran remains vital for India’s energy diversification.
    2. Chabahar Port:
      1. India’s first overseas port project.
      2. Provides access to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
      3. Part of the larger International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
    3. INSTC:
      1. Connects India to Russia and Europe via Iran.
      2. Cuts transport cost by ~30% and time by ~40%.

    Geopolitical & Regional Significance

    1. Balancing act: India walks a fine line between the U.S.–Iran rivalry and its ties with Israel and the Gulf States.
    2. Afghanistan: India and Iran cooperated closely for stability, particularly post-U.S. withdrawal.
    3. West Asia: Iran acts as a counterbalance to Sunni-dominated Gulf powers; India’s diaspora and trade interests lie across the region.

    Multilateral Engagement

    1. BRICS: Iran is a member of BRICS and became a full member along with other countries starting January 1, 2024, following an expansion agreement at the 2023 Johannesburg Summit.
    2. SCO membership: Both nations share platforms for regional security and connectivity.
    3. NAM legacy: Shared anti-colonial and non-aligned credentials.

    Challenges in the Relationship

    1. U.S. sanctions: Reduced oil imports, halted investments in Chabahar and other projects.
    2. Strategic competition: Iran–China 25-year pact and deepening Tehran–Beijing ties raise concerns for India.
    3. Regional volatility: Palestine, Syria, Yemen conflicts complicate India’s balancing approach.

    Ethical & Civilisational Diplomacy Dimension

    1. Civilisational diplomacy: Both countries advocate a just, humane, participatory order in contrast to Western domination.
    2. Palestine issue: Shared concern in Global South solidarity, though India has nuanced its position due to ties with Israel.
    3. Spiritual diplomacy: Shared heritage in Sufi and mystical traditions strengthens people-to-people bonds.

  • Ranking Pitfalls: India Rankings (2025) based on NIRF

    Introduction

    India’s higher education system is one of the largest in the world, and since 2016, the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) has aimed to provide a structured evaluation of institutions. With participation expanding from 3,565 institutions in its inception year to 14,163 in 2025, and categories rising from four to seventeen, the NIRF has created a sense of competition and accountability. However, critical flaws remain: skewed weightage for subjective parameters, inadequate measurement of inclusivity, and overemphasis on reputational factors. These shortcomings risk reducing the exercise into a branding tool rather than a driver of equity and quality in higher education.

    Why is NIRF in the News?

    India Rankings 2025 has once again been dominated by legacy public institutions, underscoring persistent inequalities in India’s higher education landscape. Despite its expanded coverage, the framework continues to rely on flawed methodologies, including subjective peer perception and incomplete outreach and inclusivity parameters. Of particular concern is the neglect of socio-economically disadvantaged groups and students with disabilities in the inclusivity metric. The stakes are high: without reform, NIRF risks entrenching elitism and doing little to democratise access to quality education.

    Is NIRF making higher education more equitable?

    1. Outreach and Inclusivity (OI): Currently limited to regional and gender diversity while omitting socio-economic disadvantage and disability.
    2. Troubling trends: Only JNU and AIIMS, Delhi scored above 70 in OI among the top 10, exposing the marginalisation of weaker sections.
    3. Reservation policies: Central institutions still fail to adequately fill OBC, SC, and ST vacancies, undermining affirmative action.

    Are the ranking parameters robust and fair?

    1. Five key parameters: Teaching & resources (30%), research (30%), graduation outcomes (20%), outreach & inclusivity (10%), peer perception (10%).
    2. Peer perception flaw: Criticised by Education Minister; reputation-based, subjective, and often biased against state-run or suburban institutions.
    3. Self-declared data: Heavy reliance risks manipulation; false submissions remain unpunished.
    4. Bibliometric dependence: While verifiable, this excludes non-English and socially relevant research output.

    What challenges persist in India’s higher education system?

    1. Regional imbalance: Few top-quality institutions outside metropolitan hubs.
    2. Faculty shortage: Outside the top 100 institutions, a dearth of PhD-qualified teachers continues.
    3. Weak research culture: 58% of management institutions reported zero research publications.
    4. Mentorship gap: Legacy institutions rarely mentor emerging universities.

    How can NIRF evolve beyond rankings?

    1. Policy tool, not ritual: Insights must inform reforms instead of being an annual exercise.
    2. Stronger inclusivity metrics: Incorporating socio-economic and disability parameters alongside gender and region.
    3. Accountability: Penalising institutions submitting false data.
    4. Capacity building: Encouraging collaboration between established and upcoming institutions.
    5. Affirmative action: Monitoring recruitment policies and enforcing reservations in faculty hiring.

    Conclusion

    The NIRF has created awareness about institutional performance and expanded its scope significantly. Yet, unless it addresses fundamental flaws, especially inclusivity, fairness in assessment, and accountability, it risks becoming a branding exercise. For India’s higher education system to truly progress, rankings must serve as instruments of reform, driving equity, excellence, and social justice.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country? Discuss.

    Linkage: The NIRF 2025 rankings expose gaps in research output, inclusivity, and global competitiveness of Indian institutions. While reforms in ranking parameters can drive internal improvements, the entry of foreign universities may create healthy competition and raise benchmarks. Thus, the PYQ directly connects with debates on how India can achieve globally competitive higher education through both domestic reforms and external participation.

  • Election of the Vice-President

    Why in the News?

    Thiru CP Radhakrishnan has been elected as Vice President of India.

    About Vice-President (VP) of India:

    • Position: Second-highest constitutional post; deputy to the President.
    • Parliamentary Role: Serves as ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
    • Succession: Ranks second in order of precedence and first in line to become President.
    • Membership: Is a member of Parliament, not directly elected by the people.

    Qualifications:

    • Citizenship: Must be a citizen of India.
    • Age: Minimum 35 years.
    • Office of Profit: Should not hold any.
    • Parliamentary Eligibility: Must qualify for election to Rajya Sabha (unlike President, who must qualify for Lok Sabha) due to the VP’s role in the Upper House.

    Roles and Responsibilities:

    • Rajya Sabha Chairmanship: Presides over sessions and ensures order.
    • Bill Classification: Refers money bills to the Lok Sabha Speaker.
    • No Independent Powers: Has no executive or legislative powers unless acting as President.

    Election Procedure:

    • Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 66.
    • Electoral College: Comprises 543 Lok Sabha MPs, 233 elected Rajya Sabha MPs, and 12 nominated Rajya Sabha members.
    • Voting Method: Proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.
    • No Whip Allowed: Parties cannot issue voting whips.
    • Conduct: Managed by the Election Commission; Returning Officer is the Secretary-General of either House (on rotation).
    • Winning Quota: Requires 50% of valid votes + 1; votes are transferred in rounds if no candidate secures majority in the first round.

    Resignation and Removal:

    Resignation

    • Article 67(a): VP submits his/her resignation to the President. Parliamentary approval is NOT needed, and the resignation takes effect immediately upon receipt.
    • No Acting VP: Constitution doesn’t provide for an acting Vice-President.
    • Presiding in Absence: Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha presides in VP’s absence (currently Harivansh Narayan Singh).
    • Example: Dhankhar, who took office in 2022, is only the third VP in Indian history to resign before completing his term, after V.V. Giri and R. Venkataraman.

    Removal

    • Article 67(b): Removal process begins in Rajya Sabha with 14 days’ notice.
    • Voting Requirement: Needs effective majority in Rajya Sabha and simple majority in Lok Sabha.
    • No Grounds Specified: Constitution doesn’t list specific removal grounds.
    • Judicial Immunity: Article 122 bars courts from questioning parliamentary proceedings related to removal.
    • No Precedent: No VP has been removed so far.
    [UPSC 2013] With reference to Parliament, consider the following statements:

    1.The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha are not the members of that House.

    2.While the nominated members of the two Houses of the Parliament have no voting right in the presidential election, they have the right to vote in the election of the Vice President.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • US to update MTCR export control policies 

    Why in the News?

    The United States is preparing to reinterpret the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to expand exports of heavy attack drones, like the MQ-9 Reaper, to partner countries.

    About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):

    • Formation: Established in 1987 by the G-7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA) to prevent the spread of missiles and UAVs capable of delivering nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
    • Membership: Today, 35 countries are members; India joined in 2016.
    • Nature: Not a treaty but a voluntary political understanding where members implement export control guidelines.

    • Coverage:

      • Category I items: Complete missile/UAV systems with ≥500 kg payload and ≥300 km range, major subsystems, and production facilities (exports presumed denied).
      • Category II items: Less sensitive or dual-use components/technologies; exports subject to national discretion under strict licensing.
    • Purpose: To limit missile proliferation while allowing peaceful space and aviation cooperation.

    About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:

    • US Reinterpretation (2025):

      • Large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the MQ-9 Reaper will be treated as “aircraft” instead of missile systems.
      • This removes the “strong presumption of denial” that earlier restricted their export under MTCR.
    • Objective: To make the US the leading drone supplier, countering competition from China, Israel, and Turkiye.

    • Implications:

      • Opens the door for Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of heavy attack drones to partners like Saudi Arabia, India, and Indo-Pacific allies.
      • Still subject to US reviews for regional stability, end-use monitoring, tech security, and human rights compliance.
      • Facilitates India–US space and defence cooperation, lowering barriers for joint ventures and technology partnerships.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:

    1. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 2. Missile Technology Control Regime 3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

    India is a member of which of the above?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3