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GS Paper: GS2

  • “There is a need for simplification of procedure for disqualification of persons found guilty of corrupt practices under the Representation of Peoples Act”. Comment.

    The RPA, 1951 provides the statutory framework for conducting elections and maintaining the integrity of India’s democratic process.

    Procedure of Disqualification

    Under Articles 103 & 192, President or Governor’s Decision acts on the advice of the Election Commission.

    Election Petition (Section 80, RPA, 1951) in the High Court within 45 days of result declaration. Appeal to SC within 30 Days

    Positive Impacts of Simplification

    Enhances Public Trust

    Improves Integrity of the Electoral Process

    Strengthens Rule of Law

    Promotes Ethical Politics

    Upholds Constitutional Morality

    Thus, simplification of disqualification provisions are needed to ensure the trinity of Ethics, Accountability and Fairness of electoral process.

  • Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India?

    The SCO, evolved from the Shanghai Five (1996), was founded in 2001, as a Eurasian political, economic, and security organisation. In the recent summit, Laos joined as a partner, expanding SCO’s strength to 27 nations (10 members, 17 partners).

    Aims and Objectives of SCO

    Security Cooperation

    Combat terrorism, separatism, and extremism (the “Three Evils”).

    Enhance regional peace and border stability.

    Economic Cooperation

    Promote regional trade, connectivity, and energy integration.

    Facilitate economic development and mutual prosperity.

    Political and Strategic Cooperation

    Strengthen multipolarity and collective global governance.

    Counterbalance Western unilateralism.

    Support UN-based international order.

    Cultural and People-to-People Ties – Enhance educational, tourism, and youth exchanges through SCO University, Cultural Forums, and Youth Camps.

    Critical Examination of SCO

    China-Pakistan-Russia Axis creates a complex geopolitical matrix with conflicting interests, especially in Afghanistan.

    China-Pakistan all weather relationship – Eg- India’s Defence Minister refused to sign the joint statement for omission of mention of Pahalgam terror attack

    China’s Wolf warrior diplomacy, Chequebook diplomacy disrespect for international rules and sovereignty erodes SCO’s credibility.

    Expansionist Agenda via BRI- Eg- China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Indian territory (PoK) – opposed by India.

    Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent fails to act decisively against cross-border terrorism, particularly state-sponsored terrorism.

    China’s use of veto in the UNSC to shield Pakistan-based global terrorists undermines anti-terror efforts.

    Limited trade integration -intra-SCO trade remains below 10%.

    Ideological mismatch -India’s democratic ethos vs authoritarian bloc politics.

    Expansion Dilemma- SCO’s enlargement, including Belarus, raises its global profile but dilutes regional focus.

    “identity crisis” – absence of enforcement mechanisms making it a mere talking shop. (Vivek Katju)

    SCO is increasingly seen as an “anti-West” forum and entry of Iran in SCO has made the situation difficult for India.

    Significance of SCO for India

    Strengthens India’s strategic outreach in Central Asia.

    India hosting the SCO Summit (2023) allowed it to promote democratic and rule-based values within a predominantly authoritarian grouping.

    Expand trade footprint in Eurasia- Provides access to large Central Asian markets for agriculture, manufacturing, and pharmaceuticals.

    Technological Cooperation- Opens avenues for collaboration in AI, quantum computing, and critical technologies.

    Energy Diplomacy – Access to Central Asian uranium reserves and hydrocarbons strengthens India’s energy security.

    Security Cooperation through RATS (Tashkent), enables counter-terror dialogue with China, Pakistan, and Central Asian states.

    Connectivity Initiatives- Supports Chabahar Port and INSTC as key trade routes to Eurasia, reducing dependence on Pakistan-controlled routes.

    Diplomatic Importance

    Enhances India’s strategic autonomy in a multipolar world.

    Acts as a bridge between South Asia and Eurasia.

    Complements India’s “Connect Central Asia” and “Act East” policies.

    Public Diplomacy- Enhances Track 2 diplomacy and cultural exchanges. Promotes academic, tourism, and youth linkages.

    Cultural Cooperation- Deepens ties in cultural, linguistic, and energy sectors.

    Way Forward

    Use SCO for counter-terrorism diplomacy and regional stability.

    Deepen energy cooperation and promote green connectivity.

    Coordinate with Russia and Central Asia for balanced engagement vis-à-vis China.

    Leverage SCO to push for multipolarity and inclusive growth.

    SCO can help realise India’s ambitions on “multi-alignment”, “strategic autonomy” and becoming a “balancing power” in the world.

  • The newly tri-nation partnership AUKUS is aimed at countering China’s ambitions in the Indo-Pacific region. Is it going to supersede the existing partnerships in the region? Discuss the strength and impact of AUKUS in the present scenario.

    The AUKUS alliance, launched in 2021, is a security partnership between Australia, the UK, and the US aimed at countering China’s assertiveness. It reflects a new phase of minilateralism.

    Strength and Impact of AUKUS in countering China’s ambitions in the Indo-Pacific region

    Nuclear Submarine Pact: Enables Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarines, enhancing undersea deterrence against China.

    Advanced Technology Sharing: Cooperation in AI, cyber warfare, quantum computing, and hypersonic weapons.

    Military Integration: Strengthens interoperability and intelligence sharing through Five Eyes alignment.

    Strategic Geography: Expands Western military reach across the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.

    Deterrence Architecture: Reinforces U.S. Indo-Pacific Strategy and balances China’s maritime expansion.

    A stronger Australia aligns with India’s interest to counter China’s ‘String of Pearls’ strategy in the Indian Ocean.

    AUKUS Superseding Existing Partnerships

    May undermine the QUAD’s balanced agenda, tilting regional focus toward militarization.

    Weakens ASEAN centrality, creating apprehensions about regional autonomy.

    Creates trust deficit with France (after Australia canceled its French submarine deal).

    It may weaken the Five Eyes alliance – Eg- New Zealand has shown displeasure over AUKUS.

    Other Issues with AUKUS

    Risk of nuclear proliferation due to the transfer of nuclear submarine technology to a non-nuclear weapon state.

    Exclusionary alliance, leaving out India, Japan, and ASEAN nations.

    Potential arms race between US-led and China-Russia blocs.

    Perception of ‘Anglosphere dominance’, limiting inclusivity in regional security frameworks.

    China–Russia axis may strengthen – China called it as “wrong and dangerous path”

    Way Forward

    Align with Quad and ASEAN-led mechanisms to ensure synergy.

    Inclusive Security Architecture by incorporating voices from South and Southeast Asia.

    Confidence-Building Measures among China, ASEAN, and other regional actors to avoid escalation.

    AUKUS marks the reemergence of power geopolitics in the Indo-Pacific. It must evolve through consultation and cooperation to ensure that it complements rather than fragments the Indo-Pacific strategic order.

  • “Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchial.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu?

    “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” – Simone de Beauvoir

    Despite progress in education, employment, and leadership – from Kalpana Chawla to Nirmala Sitharaman – Indian society continues to be guided by deep-rooted patriarchal norms.

    Women Excelling in Various Fields

    Political Sphere:

    Droupadi Murmu became India’s first tribal woman President (2022).

    Over 46% of PRI representatives are women (MoPR, 2024).

    Economic Sphere: Women-led startups form 47.6% of DPIIT-recognized startups (2023).

    Science and Technology: Nigar Shaji, ISRO project director for Aditya-L1

    Sports: Avani Lekhara (Paralympics), Nikhat Zareen (boxing), and Smriti Mandhana (cricket).

    Academics: Women constitute 43% of STEM graduates

    Patriarchal Attitudes Persisting in Society

    The enduring Devī-Dāsī dichotomy-idolizing women as sacred yet accepting their subjugation-reveals deep-rooted cultural norms that legitimize gender inequality.

    Tokenism in representation: Eg-“Sarpanch Pati” culture undermines effective female leadership

    Unpaid care burden: Women spend 299 mins/day on unpaid work (NSSO), vs. 97 mins by men.

    Triple Burden – Household, Childcare, Work

    Media stereotypes: Gender-biased portrayals reinforce traditional roles.

    ‘Glass ceiling’ – women are less likely to be hired or promoted in sectors such as technology, finance, or engineering. (McKinsey)

    Interventions Needed to Change the Milieu

    Legal and Institutional Reforms

    Gender Sensitisation in Governance: Mandatory training for bureaucrats and police.

    Implementation of Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (2023): Ensure 33% reservation in legislatures.

    Strengthen POSH Act, 2013: Extend coverage to informal, gig, and agricultural sectors.

    Gender Audit Mechanisms: Periodic audits across ministries, corporates, and universities.

    Establish fast-track courts for crimes against women as per Nirbhaya Committee recommendations.

    Economic and Structural Interventions

    Property and Inheritance Rights: Enforce Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 effectively at the ground level.

    Labour Market Reforms: Provide maternity benefits, crèche facilities, and flexible work arrangements.

    Recognize and Monetize Unpaid Labour: Integrate unpaid domestic work into GDP measurement and social protection systems.

    Social and Cultural Interventions

    Curriculum Reform: Integrate gender-sensitivity and equality lessons from school level.

    Media Accountability: Enforce SC’s 2024 guidelines against gender stereotyping in films and advertisements.

    Community Mobilisation: Engage SHGs, PRIs, and youth clubs to challenge gender norms at local level.

    Faith-Based Dialogue: Partner with religious leaders to reinterpret traditions supporting equality.

    Behavioural and Psychological Change

    Male Inclusion Campaigns: Expand “Men for Women” and “HeForShe” initiatives to rural areas.

    Positive Role Modelling: Showcase success stories of women achievers in governance and innovation.

    Public Awareness Drives: Use Beti Bachao Beti Padhao 2.0 to challenge gender bias in families and media.

    Adopting ILO’s 5Rs (recognition, reduction, redistribution, reward, representation) can help in realising Nari Shakti and SDG 5.

  • Can Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations present an alternative model of public service delivery to benefit the common citizen? Discuss the challenges of this alternative model.

    Role of Civil Society and NGOs in Public Service Delivery

    Education – Run low-cost, community schools, teacher training, and literacy drives. Eg- Pratham’s Read India Campaign.

    Health and Nutrition – Provide mobile health units, maternal care, and nutrition programs. Eg- Akshaya Patra mid-day meals.

    Women Empowerment – Organize self-help groups and cooperatives to promote income generation. Eg- SEWA – women’s cooperatives in Gujarat.

    Rural Development – Implement watershed management and livelihood programs. Eg- WOTR – soil and water conservation in drought-prone regions.

    Governance & Accountability – Conduct awareness campaigns, social audits, and legal advocacy. Eg- MKSS pioneered Right to Information through Jan Sunwai model.

    Environment and Sustainability – Promote community-based natural resource management and renewable energy use. Eg- TERI

    Strengths of NGO-Civil Society Model

    Community-Centric Programs

    Flexible and Innovative low-cost models

    Last-Mile Reach

    Participatory Governance

    Fills governance and capacity gaps in public service delivery

    Challenges of this Alternative Model

    Funding Constraints – Dependence on foreign/donor funding.

    Fragmentation and Duplication – Poor coordination with government departments.

    Accountability and Transparency Deficit – Eg- CBI report: <10% NGOs file audited financial statements.

    Anti-Developmental Concerns – Eg- IB Report: NGO activism causing ~2% GDP loss.

    Regulatory Restrictions – Stringent FCRA, CSR, compliance laws.

    Elite and Urban Bias – Disconnect from grassroots realities.

    Sustainability Issues – Short-term donor-driven projects.

    Way Forward

    Vijay Kumar Committee Recommendations – Promote ‘Light regulation’ of NGOs.

    2nd ARC Recommendation – Establish an independent National Accreditation Council.

    Government-NGO Collaboration Platforms – Eg- Kerala’s Kudumbashree model.

    Diversified Funding – Reduce donor dependency.

    Outcome-Based Monitoring – Introduce impact assessment frameworks (NITI Aayog).

    NGOs are “integral cogs in the wheel of good governance”. A balanced partnership between genuine NGOs and the government is crucial for India’s inclusive and sustainable development.

  • Has digital illiteracy, particularly in rural areas, coupled with lack of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) accessibility hindered socio-economic development? Examine with justification.

    As per UNDP (2022), Digital access is now a core dimension of human development. However, digital illiteracy and poor ICT access have created a digital divide, restricting equitable growth.

    Digital illiteracy and accessibility

    Internet Access: Only 43% of rural households have internet access (NFHS-5, 2021).

    Digital Literacy: Merely 10% of rural population is digitally literate (NSSO data, 2022).

    Infrastructure Gaps: More than 35 thousand Gram Panchayats lack connectivity under BharatNet.

    Device Ownership: Less than 15% of rural households have computers or tablets (NSSO).

    Gender Divide: Only 33% of rural women have mobile internet access (GSMA Report, 2023).

    Exclusion and inclusion errors in digital systems reduce trust in e-services. Eg- authentication errors in Aadhaar-linked DBT or ration delivery.

    Weak Common Service Centre (CSC) Infrastructure: poor connectivity, limited equipment, and untrained staff

    Lack of People-Centric Governance: Most government websites are only in English, not in vernacular languages, excluding non-English users.

    Education and Skill Development

    Limited online learning: Only 24% rural students could attend online classes during COVID-19 (ASER 2021).

    Digital exclusion restricts access to e-learning platforms like SWAYAM, PMGDISHA, and DIKSHA.

    Employment and Livelihoods

    Rural youth miss digital job opportunities in gig economy and e-commerce.

    Farmers lack access to digital market tools like e-NAM or Kisan Suvidha App.

    Financial Inclusion

    Inability to use UPI, digital banking, and DBT systems limits access to formal finance.

    Rural MSMEs struggle with e-payments and online compliance (GST, MCA21).

    Governance and Welfare Access – Eg- exclusion from Aadhaar-based DBT due to authentication errors and poor connectivity.

    Health and Social Services – Lack of ICT prevents use of telemedicine platforms (eSanjeevani) and digital health records.

    Gender and Social Inequality – Women, SC/ST, and elderly are most excluded due to low literacy and device ownership.

    However, there are some Achievements

    Expanding Digital Infrastructure

    BharatNet: Over 2.14 lakh Gram Panchayats connected with optical fibre; 97.6% villages have mobile coverage.

    5G rollout (2022-25): 4.7 lakh towers covering 99.6% districts.

    Massive Digital Empowerment

    PMGDISHA: Trained over 6.3 crore citizens in digital literacy.

    Common Service Centres (5.3 lakh) serve as ICT hubs in 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.

    Financial and Payment Revolution

    UPI: Handles 85% of India’s digital payments, processing (June 2025). Enabled financial inclusion of 491 million individuals and 65 million merchants.

    e-Governance and Inclusion

    UMANG: 2,300+ services in 23 languages; 8.7 crore users.

    DigiLocker: 56 crore users; promotes paperless governance.

    Jan Soochna Portal (Rajasthan): Promotes proactive transparency.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Digital Infrastructure: Accelerate BharatNet Phase-II to connect all Gram Panchayats

    Enhance Digital Literacy: Expand PMGDISHA and integrate digital literacy in school curricula (e-Kidz, IT clubs).

    Affordable Access: Subsidize data costs and promote public Wi-Fi hotspots (PM-WANI) in rural regions.

    Promote Local Language Content: Use platforms like BHASHINI for vernacular digital inclusion.

    Encourage PPP Models: Collaborate with private sector for last-mile connectivity and training. Eg- CSC-SPV.

    Inclusive Design: Ensure gender-sensitive and community-based ICT training modules.

    Bridging this digital divide is essential to achieve “Digital India for All” and realize the vision of inclusive growth under Viksit Bharat@2047.

  • The jurisdiction of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) regarding lodging an FIR and conducting probe within a particular State is being questioned by various States. However, the power of the States to withhold consent to the CBI is not absolute. Explain with special reference to the federal character of India.

    The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), established under the Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act, 1946, is India’s premier investigating agency. It has become the issue of confrontational federalism in recent years.

    Legal Framework of CBI’s Jurisdiction

    Section 6 of DSPE Act – CBI requires State consent to investigate cases within that State

    General Consent – blanket permission for all cases (most States provide this).

    Case-specific Consent – given on a case-to-case basis if general consent is withdrawn.

    States’ Power to Withhold Consent

    Police and Public order is a State List subject, Entry 2, List II.

    Several States (e.g., West Bengal, Kerala, Chhattisgarh, Punjab) have withdrawn general consent citing political misuse.

    However, States’ Power is Not Absolute

    Court’s Power –

    The Supreme Court and High Courts can direct the CBI to investigate without State consent under Articles 32 and 226. (State of West Bengal v. Committee for Protection of Democratic Rights (2010))

    Union Territories – CBI can operate without State consent in UTs.

    Inter-State and National Interest Cases – Involving corruption, national security, or cross-border crimes, Union may justify CBI probe to preserve national integrity.

    The Supreme Court ruled that the CBI can probe Central officials under Central laws without State consent.

    Impact on Federal Character of India

    Positive Aspects

    Judicial oversight – SC/HC powers to direct CBI investigations prevent misuse of State autonomy.

    Enables impartial probes in crimes affecting multiple States.

    National interest protection – accountability in cases threatening unity, security, or economy.

    Negative Aspects

    CBI entry without consent undermines State authority.

    Politicisation fears – Opposition-ruled States view CBI as a tool of the Centre

    SC criticized the CBI as a “caged parrot speaking in its master’s voice.” (Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL) Case)

    Weakens cooperative federalism – Tensions between WB Govt and Centre

    Reinforces the unitary bias of the Constitution, reducing States to subordinate entities in criminal investigation matters.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Autonomy – Implement Vineet Narain (1997) directives (“CVC-supervised model”).

    Statutory Backing – Replace DSPE Act, 1946 with a clear modern CBI law.

    Consultative Federalism – Respect States’ consent; use Inter-State Council for dialogue.

    Joint Collaboration – Form Centre-State task forces for investigation

    The need of the hour is strengthening institutional independence of CBI , and fostering cooperative federalism.

  • Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analyzing their structural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures.

    NHRC is a statutory body, established under the Protection of Human Rights act 1993. It is established in conformity with Paris Principles 1991.

    Role Played by Human Rights Commissions in India

    Protection of Life and Liberty- Eg- NHRC intervention in Manipur fake encounter cases (2013) led to a Supreme Court-monitored CBI probe.

    Ensuring Accountability of State Machinery- Eg- NHRC recommended Rs. 10 lakh compensation to victims of the Hashimpura massacre (2015).

    Protection of Vulnerable Groups- Eg- NHRC’s recommendations against bonded labour led to several state-level rehabilitation programmes.

    Monitoring Custodial and Institutional Conditions- Eg- NHRC report on Muzaffarpur shelter home (2018) exposed severe human rights violations.

    Promoting Human Rights Awareness through training programmes, seminars, and media campaigns

    Policy and Legal Reforms- Eg- NHRC’s recommendations on prevention of manual scavenging and rehabilitation.

    Addressing Emerging Human Rights Issues – Eg- NHRC issued advisories on migrant workers’ rights during COVID-19 lockdown (2020).

    Collaboration with International and National Agencies – Eg- India’s Universal Periodic Review (UPR) reports before the UNHRC.

    Issues Associated with NHRC

    Statutory Limitations on Jurisdiction – NHRC cannot take up cases older than one year or matters pending before a court (sub judice).

    Cases involving military personnel often fall outside the NHRC’s purview

    The NHRC lacks the authority to punish violators, cannot directly impose penalties or award relief to victims.

    Observations by the Sub-Committee on Accreditation (SCA) of GANHRI

    Lack of Diversity – Only 95 out of 393 staff positions are held by women, violating the Paris Principles requirement of pluralism and representativeness.

    Government-Dominated Selection Committee curbs opposition input and reduces transparency in selection.

    Weak Investigation Mechanism – NHRC depends on police and government officials on deputation for investigation.

    Limited Engagement with Civil Society

    Additional Institutional Challenges

    Vacancies and Delays in appointments reduce capacity and response efficiency.

    Financial Dependence- Budgetary allocations come through the Ministry of Home Affairs, affecting autonomy.

    Poor Implementation of Recommendations- NHRC recommendations are advisory, often ignored or delayed by governments.

    Backlogs- Growing pendency of complaints due to limited staff and rising caseloads.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Legal Powers- Amend the 1993 Act to make NHRC/SHRC recommendations legally binding.

    Independent Investigation Wing- Establish a separate cadre of trained human rights investigators.

    Expand Jurisdiction- Review restrictions on cases involving armed forces and paramilitary personnel.

    Financial Autonomy- Provide independent budgetary control, like constitutional bodies (e.g., EC, CAG).

    Empower State Commissions- Strengthen SHRCs through funding and capacity-building support.

    Enhance Awareness- Conduct public education campaigns with NGOs and media support.

    Regular Review Mechanism- Form a National Human Rights Coordination Council to monitor and evaluate performance.

    The 3R approach of Reform, Reorientation and Restructuring can enhance functioning of NHRC as an effective Bulwark Of Democracy in India.

  • Analyze the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.

    Equality implies that all individuals are treated without discrimination and enjoy equal access to rights, opportunities, and justice under the law.

    It has two forms:

    Formal Equality: Equal treatment under law.

    Substantive Equality: Corrective measures to achieve real equality.

    The US Constitution upholds formal legal equality, whereas the Indian Constitution advances substantive and transformative equality

    Similar Constitutional Foundations

    Both uphold equality as a constitutional guarantee and cornerstone of democracy.

    The US Constitution (14th Amendment, 1868) ensures equal protection of the laws.

    Indian Constitution (Articles 14-18) guarantees equality before law and prohibition of discrimination.

    Both enable judicial enforcement through independent courts ensuring constitutional supremacy.

    Distinguishing Features of Equality

    Both India and the USA uphold equality as a democratic ideal and Basic Feature of the constitution.

  • Explain the constitutional provisions under which Legislative Councils are established. Review the working and current status of Legislative Councils with suitable illustrations.

    Legislative Councils (Vidhan Parishads) are the upper chambers in certain states, designed to act as a revisory and deliberative body.

    Constitutional Provisions

    Article 168 – Provides for a bicameral legislature (Governor, Assembly, and Council) in few states.

    Article 169 – Parliament may create or abolish a Council by law if the State Assembly passes a resolution by special majority.

    Article 171 – Defines composition–

    1/3 elected by MLAs,

    1/3 by local bodies,

    1/12 by teachers,

    1/12 by graduates,

    1/6 nominated by Governor (eminent persons).

    Article 172(2) – Council is a permanent body, one-third retiring every two years.

    Article 182-184 – Deal with Chairman, Deputy Chairman, and conduct of business.

    Current Status

    Six states currently have Legislative Councils- UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.

    Previously existed in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Punjab, J&K but later abolished.

    Working and Role

    Deliberative Function- Reviews legislation. Eg- Andhra Pradesh Council played a pivotal role in the Land Titling Bill (2023).

    Representative Function- Includes teachers, graduates, and professionals – ensuring diversity in law-making.

    Check on Hasty Legislation- Provides a “cooling chamber” function to prevent rushed or populist law-making by the Assembly.

    Continuity- Being a permanent house, ensures governance continuity even when the Assembly dissolves.

    Serves as a forum for experienced legislators and experts to contribute to policymaking, even if not elected directly.

    Challenges

    Limited Powers- Can delay ordinary bills for 4 months and money bills for 14 days, but cannot veto.

    Political Patronage- Used to accommodate defeated leaders.

    Low Productivity- Weak participation and debate quality in several states.

    Financial Burden- Maintenance cost often exceeds functional utility.

    Unequal Representation- Teacher and graduate constituencies have low turnout and poor inclusivity.

    Way Forward

    Reform Composition- Include women, professionals, civil society members.

    Define Role Clearly- Give Councils specific review and policy oversight functions.

    Regular Evaluation- Periodic performance audits to justify continuance.

    Curb Political Misuse- Transparent nomination and election process.

    Legislative Councils reflect India’s deliberative democratic ethos. With reforms, they can evolve from political parking spaces into effective revisory institutions upholding constitutionalism.

    Judiciary