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GS Paper: GS3

  • Species in News: Kaalinga

    Species in News: Kaalinga
    PC: The Hindu

    Why in the News?

    The Western Ghats’ king cobra, commonly called ‘Kalinga Sarpa’, will soon be recognized in the scientific community as Ophiophagus kaalinga.

    About Kaalinga (Ophiophagus kaalinga):

    Details
    Geographical Location • Native to the Western Ghats of Karnataka, India, and extends to adjacent regions within the Western Ghats.
    • Prefers dense tropical forests and hilly terrains.
    Physical Features • Can grow up to 10-12 feet.

    • Carnivorous, feeding on snakes, small mammals, and lizards.

    • Potent neurotoxic venom capable of killing several humans or an elephant in a single bite.
    Uniqueness • Known for territorial behaviour and intelligence.
    • Females build and fiercely guard nests (4 ft x 3 ft) with 23-43 eggs per clutch.
    Conservation Status • At risk due to habitat fragmentation, human-animal conflict, and the absence of specific anti-venom.

    IUCN Status: Vulnerable

    WPA, 1972: Schedule II (accorded protection but with lesser restrictions compared to Schedule I)

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] King Cobra is the only snake that makes its own nest. Why does it make its nest?

    (a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
    (b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to give birth to its offspring
    (c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in the nest and guards the nest until they are hatched
    (d) It is a large, cold-blooded animal and needs a nest to hibernate in the cold season

  • Centre reimposes AFSPA in 6 ‘volatile’ regions

    Why in the News?

    Eighteen months after ethnic violence began in Manipur, the Central government has reinstated the Disturbed Areas status under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) in six police station jurisdictions, including the affected area of Jiribam.

    Present map

    What is the historical background?

    • The original ordinance (AFSPA) was a response to the challenges faced by the British during World War II, particularly by Indian Nationalists.
      • After independence, Indian leaders retained and adapted this framework, facing their internal security challenges.
    • PM Jawaharlal Nehru decided to continue with the law due to escalating insurgencies in regions like Assam and Manipur.
      • The Armed Forces (Assam and Manipur) Special Powers Ordinance was promulgated on May 22, 1958, and subsequently replaced by the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act on September 11, 1958.
    • Initially, AFSPA was applied to the Naga Hills and surrounding insurgent areas to empower armed forces to restore order in “disturbed areas”.
    • Over the years, AFSPA has been extended to various other states facing similar issues, including Manipur, Assam, and parts of Jammu and Kashmir.

    What is the significance of the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, of 1958?

    • Extraordinary Powers: AFSPA grants armed forces significant powers, including the authority to arrest without a warrant, search premises, and use lethal force if deemed necessary. These powers are intended to facilitate military operations in volatile regions.
    • Legal Immunity: The Act provides immunity from prosecution for armed forces personnel acting under its provisions unless sanctioned by the central government. This aspect has led to widespread criticism and allegations of human rights abuses.
    • Controversy and Criticism: AFSPA has been a subject of intense debate due to its implications for civil liberties. Critics argue that it leads to extrajudicial killings and other human rights violations. High-profile incidents have fueled calls for its repeal or reform, with activists like Irom Sharmila famously protesting against it for years.

    Which are the States where AFSPA is presently in effect?

    The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) is currently in effect in several states across India, primarily in regions experiencing ongoing insurgency or civil unrest.  These are Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland (eight districts), Arunachal Pradesh (three districts), and parts of Assam, Manipur (excluding the Imphal municipal area).

    What is the present controversy around the provisions of AFSPA?

    • Human Rights Violations: AFSPA has been associated with numerous human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings, torture, and enforced disappearances.
      • Reports indicate that over 1,500 extrajudicial killings occurred in Manipur alone between 2000 and 2012, often involving security forces acting with impunity due to the protections afforded by the Act.
    • Impunity for Security Forces: This Act provides armed forces personnel with legal immunity for actions taken under its provisions, requiring prior approval from the central government for prosecution.
      • This has led to a culture of impunity (exemption from punishment)  where security personnel are rarely held accountable for their actions, exacerbating public distrust and resentment towards the military.
    • Excessive Use of Force: AFSPA grants security forces broad powers to use lethal force against individuals deemed to be acting against the law.
      • Critics argue that this provision leads to excessive and disproportionate responses, often resulting in civilian casualties and further violence in already tense regions.
    • Lack of Accountability and Oversight: The absence of effective mechanisms for accountability regarding human rights violations under AFSPA has been a significant concern.
      • Despite recommendations from various committees for reforms or repeal of the Act, the government has largely ignored these calls, perpetuating a cycle of abuse without adequate oversight.
    • Political and Social Backlash: The ongoing application of AFSPA has sparked significant protests and activism, particularly in northeastern states like Manipur and Nagaland.
      • Activists, including prominent figures like Irom Sharmila, have campaigned for its repeal, arguing that it fosters alienation among local populations and undermines democratic values in India.

    Way forward: 

    • Balancing Security with Rights: Reform AFSPA to incorporate provisions ensuring accountability and oversight, such as independent inquiries into alleged violations and regular reviews of its application, while retaining necessary powers to address security challenges.
    • Strengthening Local Governance: Enhance the capacity of state police and local administrations through training and resources, enabling them to manage law and order effectively, thereby reducing reliance on AFSPA over time.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Human rights activists constantly highlight the fact that the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 (AFSPA) is a draconian act leading to cases of human rights abuses by security forces. What sections of AFSPA are opposed by the activists? Critically evaluate the requirement regarding the view held by the Apex Court. (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • [pib] Centenary of Bose-Einstein Statistics

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Science and Technology has inaugurated the centenary celebrations of Bose-Einstein Statistics at the S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences.

    Bose-Einstein Statistics

    • Bose-Einstein statistics describe how certain particles called bosons (like photons and helium-4 atoms) behave, especially at low temperatures.
    • This concept was developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein.
    • It explains the behavior of bosons, which are particles that can exist in the same state as others.
    • Unlike other particles, bosons can “share” a quantum state, meaning multiple bosons can exist in the same place with the same energy.
    • It is used to understand particles that don’t follow the Pauli Exclusion Principle (which states that two fermions, like electrons, cannot occupy the same state).

    Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

    • A BEC is a special state of matter formed when bosons are cooled down to almost absolute zero (-273°C). In this state, the particles behave as one single quantum entity.
    • Bosons, when cooled to near absolute zero, lose their individual properties and combine to form a single quantum state.
    • It was achieved in 1995 by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman using rubidium atoms.
    • This discovery earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics.
    • BECs exhibit unique quantum behaviors like zero viscosity (flow without friction) and act as a “super atom” that is extremely sensitive to any outside influence.

    Significance of Bose-Einstein Statistics

    • Bose-Einstein statistics are essential for understanding quantum mechanics, particularly the behavior of particles in quantum states.
    • These statistics led to the discovery of Bose-Einstein Condensates, which have unique properties not seen in normal states of matter.
    • BECs are useful in atomic clocks, superconductors, and quantum computing due to their sensitivity and unique quantum properties.
    • Bose’s work was crucial in explaining light’s particle nature (photons), which helped develop the concept of wave-particle duality in quantum theory.
    • Bose-Einstein statistics paved the way for studying low-temperature physics, allowing scientists to observe quantum effects in larger systems.
    • These statistics and the discovery of BECs continue to inspire new fields of research, including quantum fluids and quantum phase transitions.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionised the field of Physics.

  • RBI released list of Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D-SIBs)

    Why in the News?

    The RBI designated SBI, HDFC Bank, and ICICI Bank as Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D-SIBs) for 2024.

    Current D-SIBs in India:

    • As of 2024, the State Bank of India (SBI), HDFC Bank, and ICICI Bank are classified as D-SIBs.
    • SBI was classified as a D-SIB in 2015, ICICI Bank in 2016, and HDFC Bank in 2017.

    What are Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D-SIBs)?

    • D-SIBs are banks that are critical to the stability of a country’s financial system.
    • They are often termed “Too Big To Fail” (TBTF) because their failure could lead to significant disruptions in the economy.
    • The RBI identifies D-SIBs annually.
    • The framework for recognizing these banks was issued in July 2014.
    • The RBI has been publishing an annual list of D-SIBs since 2015.

    D-SIBs are placed in different buckets based on systemic importance scores. Higher bucket rankings require greater capital requirements to absorb losses.

    • SBI is in Bucket 4.
    • HDFC Bank is in Bucket 3.
    • ICICI Bank is in Bucket 1.

    D-SIBs must maintain additional Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) capital based on their bucket.

    • SBI: 0.80% of Risk Weighted Assets (RWAs).
    • HDFC Bank: 0.40%
    • ICICI Bank: 0.20%

    Global Systemically Important Banks (G-SIBs):

    • On the global stage, G-SIBs are designated by the Financial Stability Board (FSB).
    • G-SIBs include large international banks such as JP Morgan Chase and HSBC.
    • Foreign banks in India that qualify as G-SIBs are required to hold additional CET1 capital in India, proportional to their global risk-weighted assets.

    Benefits of D-SIB Classification

    • It ensures financial stability by requiring additional capital buffers for resilience during economic stress.
    • It increases public confidence through enhanced monitoring and regulation.
    • It receives improved supervisory attention, leading to better governance and controls.
    • It prepares D-SIBs for financial shocks with additional CET1 and stress-testing requirements.
    • It often benefits from higher credit ratings, lowering borrowing costs and improving access to capital.

  • ADB increases Climate Finance backed by US, Japan Pledge

    Why in the News?

    The Asian Development Bank (ADB) will boost climate-related lending by up to $7.2 billion following an agreement by the United States and Japan to provide risk guarantees for some existing loans.

    • This marks the first-ever use of sovereign guarantees for climate finance.

    ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
    About ADB was founded in 1966 following the Conference on Asian Economic Cooperation organized by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East.

    • Headquarters: Located in Manila, Philippines.
    • Status: Official UN Observer.
    Aims and Objectives
    • Reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific region.
    • Provide Program Assistance that provides loans (hard/soft), technical assistance, and grants.
    • Enhances effectiveness through policy dialogues, advisory services, and co-financing to mobilize additional financial resources.
    Goals and Targets
    • ADB raises funds primarily through bond issues on global capital markets.
    • The ADB has set a climate finance target of $100 billion from 2019 to 2030. The U.S. will guarantee $1 billion of existing ADB loans, while Japan will underwrite $600 million.

    Advantages of the Guarantee Structure:

    • Expands ADB’s lending capacity.
    • Lending space will be used over 5 years, while the guarantees will last for 25 years.
    • Example: A sustainable aviation fuel initiative in Pakistan using cooking oil, with ADB covering about half of the $90 million cost.
    Membership
    • Total Members: 67 countries, with 48 from Asia and the Pacific.
    • Membership Eligibility: Includes members of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) and non-regional developed countries.
    • Major Shareholders: Japan and the United States (Each hold 15.607% of shares), China ( 6.444%), India (6.331%), Australia (5.786%).

  • No dual eco-clearance for 39 categories of industry

    Why in the News?

    The Environment Ministry has agreed to a long-standing request from industries to remove the need for environmental clearance and permission to set up operations. This will make it easier for businesses to comply with regulations.

    India’s Environmental Policies and Goals

    • Streamlining Compliance: The government has removed the requirement for ‘white category’ industries to obtain both Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent to Establish (CTE) {Dual eco clearance}. This decision is expected to reduce the compliance burden on businesses, allowing them to operate more efficiently without duplicative approvals.
    • Classification of Industries: Industries are categorized into four color-coded groups based on their pollution potential: Red (most polluting), Orange, Green, and White (least polluting). 
      • The recent exemption applies specifically to those in the White category, which includes sectors like solar energy production and fly ash brick manufacturing.
    • Alignment with National Goals: This move aligns with India’s broader environmental objectives as outlined in the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and commitments made under international agreements like the Paris Agreement.
      • These include targets for reducing emissions intensity and increasing non-fossil fuel energy sources.
    • Focus on Sustainable Development: The policy shift reflects a growing emphasis on balancing economic growth with ecological sustainability. It aims to foster an environment conducive to green technologies while still addressing pollution control through existing frameworks.
    Note: Dual Eco-Clearance refers to the requirement for certain industries in India to obtain both Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent to Establish (CTE) before commencing operations, ensuring compliance with environmental regulations.

    Impacts of Eliminating Dual Eco-Clearance for Industrial Projects

    • Reduced Administrative Burden: By eliminating the need for dual clearances, businesses can save time and resources that would otherwise be spent navigating complex regulatory requirements.
    • Encouragement of Green Industries: The exemption is likely to encourage investment in green technologies and industries that contribute positively to environmental sustainability. This aligns with India’s goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2070.
    • Potential Increase in Industrial Activity: With fewer regulatory hurdles, there may be an uptick in industrial activities within the exempted categories, potentially leading to job creation and economic growth in these sectors.

    What are other potential risks associated with the new eco-clearance framework?

    • Environmental Oversight Concerns: Critics argue that easing compliance requirements could lead to lax environmental oversight, increasing the risk of pollution incidents if industries are not adequately monitored.
    • Inconsistent Implementation: The reliance on state departments for permitting could result in inconsistent application of regulations across different regions, potentially leading to environmental degradation in areas where enforcement is weaker.
    • Long-Term Sustainability Risks: While immediate economic benefits may arise from reduced compliance burdens, there is a concern that neglecting environmental checks could compromise long-term sustainability goals, particularly if industries expand without adequate ecological safeguards.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Monitoring Mechanisms for White Category Industries: Establish periodic audits and use digital monitoring tools to ensure compliance, maintaining oversight without imposing excessive regulatory burdens.
    • Standardize Implementation Across States: Develop clear, consistent guidelines for states to prevent uneven enforcement and ensure that reduced compliance requirements do not compromise environmental standards.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard. (UPSC IAS/2024)

  • Green Transition that India needs

    Why in the News?

    With Donald Trump’s win in the U.S. and ongoing conflicts in West Asia, India faces a significant challenge at COP29: it must reduce carbon emissions fairly, sustain economic growth, and attract climate funding for essential investments.

    Primary Challenges Facing India’s Renewable Energy Transition

    • Policy Instability: Frequent changes in policies create uncertainty for investors, hindering long-term planning and investment in renewable energy projects.
    • Financial Constraints: India requires substantial investment—estimated at about $10 trillion by 2070—for its energy transition, yet access to affordable financing remains a significant barrier.
    • Infrastructure Limitations: The existing energy infrastructure is often inadequate to support the rapid deployment of renewable technologies, particularly in rural areas where access to clean energy is limited.
    • Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Coal remains a dominant source of energy, accounting for approximately 73% of total power generation. This reliance complicates the shift towards renewables.
    • Geographical Disparities: There are uneven resources and infrastructure across regions, affecting the adoption and efficiency of renewable technologies.
    • Environmental and Social Concerns: Rapid expansion of renewable energy can lead to land use conflicts, impacting agriculture and local ecosystems. Additionally, there are concerns about job losses in traditional energy sectors during the transition.

    How India Can Secure Financing for Its Green Transition?

    • International Collaboration: Engaging with global partners through initiatives like the International Solar Alliance can attract foreign investments and technology transfers.
    • Innovative Financing Models: Implementing operational expenditure (opex) models rather than capital expenditure (capex) can lower upfront costs for consumers. For example, community solar projects can allow shared ownership and reduce individual financial burdens.
    • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encouraging collaborations between government entities and private investors can mobilize resources for large-scale renewable projects while sharing risks.
    • Targeted Subsidies: Redirecting subsidies from fossil fuels to clean energy technologies can create a more favorable financial environment for renewable investments. This includes enhancing support for green technologies through tax incentives and grants.

    Strategies That Can Be Implemented (Way Forward)

    • Decentralized Energy Systems: Promoting distributed renewable energy sources (like rooftop solar) can empower local communities and reduce dependence on centralized power systems. Innovative business models such as community solar can enhance accessibility.
    • Digital Integration: Leveraging digital technologies to manage energy distribution more efficiently can optimize resource use and enhance system resilience. Investments in smart meters and AI-driven energy management systems are essential.
    • Circular Economy Initiatives: Developing a circular economy framework for managing waste from renewable technologies can improve resource efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. This includes recycling materials from solar panels and batteries.
    • Focus on Supply Chains: Positioning India within global clean energy supply chains rather than adopting protectionist policies can enhance competitiveness and attract investments. Collaborating with other countries on technology development is crucial.
    • Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating consumers about the benefits of renewable technologies and encouraging adoption through financial incentives can drive demand for green solutions

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • Exercise ‘Poorvi Prahar’

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Army is conducting a high-intensity tri-services exercise named Poorvi Prahar from November 10 to 18 in Arunachal Pradesh’s forward areas.

    About Exercise ‘Poorvi Prahar’

    • It is a joint effort of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force to improve combat effectiveness for Integrated Joint Operations in challenging mountainous terrain.
    • It features a broad range of advanced military platforms:
      • Aircraft and Helicopters: Includes fighter aircraft, reconnaissance platforms, Chinook helicopters, and the Advanced Light Helicopter (Rudra).
      • Artillery: Deployment of M777 Ultra-Light Howitzers.
      • Capabilities: These assets provide high mobility, firepower, and precision suited to the region’s tough terrain.
    • Significance:
      • It emphasizes the Indian Armed Forces’ readiness to conduct multi-domain operations across land, air, and sea, reinforcing India’s strategic deterrence capabilities in the region.

  • Article 6.4 of the Carbon Market

    Article 6.4 of the Carbon Market

    Why in the News?

    • At the COP29 climate summit in Baku, Azerbaijan, the adoption of Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement has paved the way for global carbon trading under UN supervision.
      • This new development allows UN member countries to trade carbon credits globally.

    What is Article 6.4?

    • Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement establishes a global carbon market to facilitate carbon credit trading between countries.
      • It is part of Article 6, which outlines mechanisms for international cooperation in achieving net-zero emissions.
    • Objective: Enable countries to offset their emissions by investing in emission reduction projects in other countries.
    • It establishes a global carbon market overseen by a UNFCCC Supervisory Body.
      • This body would develop rules, monitors credit issuance, and ensures compliance with international standards.
    • It allows countries to generate and trade Emission Reduction Credits (ERCs), which represent reductions in CO₂ or equivalent greenhouse gases.
      • Credits are earned from approved climate projects and can be traded globally.
    • Through subsections like Article 6.2, countries can use ITMOs (Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes) to meet their NDCs, which are tradeable units representing emissions reductions.

    Significance of Article 6.4

    • Cost-Effective Climate Action: By enabling global carbon markets, Article 6.4 could save an estimated $250 billion annually in implementing climate plans, providing a cost-efficient path to emission reductions.
    • Support for NDCs: The mechanism helps countries meet their NDC targets under the Paris Agreement, allowing more flexibility and incentivizing investments in green projects worldwide.
    • Economic Growth and Climate Mitigation: Carbon markets foster investments in clean energy, create jobs in climate-focused sectors, and link economic growth with climate action.
    • Encourages Sustainable Development: Article 6.4 incentivizes sustainable projects in developing countries, promoting green technology transfer and supporting local economies.

    Types of Carbon Credit Projects under Article 6.4

    • Emission Reduction Projects
      • Energy Efficiency Improvements: Reducing energy consumption (e.g., efficient lighting, better insulation).
      • Renewable Energy: Replacing fossil fuels with solar, wind, or hydroelectric power.
    • Emission Removal Projects
      • Reforestation and Afforestation: Increasing forest cover to absorb CO₂.
      • Soil Carbon Sequestration: Storing carbon in soil through agricultural practices.
    • Carbon Storage Projects
      • Geological Storage: Storing CO₂ in deep underground formations.
      • Biochar Production: Locking carbon in biochar, enhancing soil fertility.
    • Technological Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
      • Direct Air Capture: Capturing CO₂ from the air and storing it underground or using it industrially.
      • Ocean-Based Solutions: Enhancing ocean CO₂ absorption, such as through algae cultivation.

    Issues with Article 6.4

    • Carbon Offsetting Criticisms: Critics argue that offsetting doesn’t reduce global emissions but shifts responsibility, allowing countries to continue emitting while claiming neutrality.
    • Carbon Accounting Challenges: Unreliable carbon accounting can lead to “phantom credits,” where emissions reductions are overstated or inaccurately recorded, failing to match actual reductions.
    • Greenwashing Risks: Some countries and companies may use carbon credits as a form of greenwashing, claiming carbon neutrality while continuing to pollute.
    • Equity and Climate Justice Concerns: Developing nations, which contribute less to global emissions, are the most vulnerable to climate impacts.
    • Potential for Reversal Risks: Projects that store carbon in natural reservoirs risk releasing it back into the atmosphere. Some standards allow projects to end monitoring if reversal risk is considered “negligible,” which remains undefined and problematic.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol.

    (b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota.

    (c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission.

    (d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations Environment Programme.

  • Savannah Elephant populations fell by about 70% on average

    Savannah Elephant populations fell by about 70% on average

    Why in the News?

    Savanna elephants have experienced a significant population decline of around 70% across surveyed sites, primarily due to poaching and habitat loss.

    Decline in African Elephants Population

    • Researchers conducted a comprehensive assessment of these species using data from 475 sites in 37 countries between 1964 and 2016.
    1. Savanna Elephants: Populations declined by about 70% on average at surveyed sites.
    2. Forest Elephants: Populations fell by about 90% on average at surveyed sites.
    • The total population of African elephants decreased by 77% on average at surveyed sites.

    Features of African Elephants:

    • African elephants are the largest land animals on Earth, known for their size, intelligence, and complex social structures.
    • They are divided into savanna (bush) elephants (larger, with bigger tusks and open grassland habitat) and forest elephants (smaller, with straighter tusks and dense forest habitats).
    • Highly intelligent, African elephants display memory, empathy, and intricate social bonds within herds.
    • Conservation status:
      • CITES: Appendix I
      • IUCN: Savanna Elephants (Endangered); Forest Elephants (Critically Endangered)

    Geographical Spread

    • Savanna Elephants: Primarily in eastern and southern Africa, notably in Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania.
    • Forest Elephants: Mainly in central and western Africa, including Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and parts of Cameroon.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

    1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.

    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.

    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.

    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 3 and 4 only