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GS Paper: GS3

  • How did land reforms in some parts of the country help to improve the socio-economic conditions of marginal and small farmers?

    Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice.

    Impact of land reforms on socio-economic conditions of Farmers

    Abolition of Zamindari

    States like Kerala, West Bengal, Karnataka eliminated intermediary rights, transferring ownership to actual cultivators.

    Increased security, reduced exploitation, and improved bargaining power.

    West Bengal’s Operation Barga (1978) registered sharecroppers and guaranteed them 75% share in output when they used their own inputs.

    Raised incomes of more than 1.5 million tenant farmers.

    Land ceiling laws and redistribution of surplus land in states such as Kerala and West Bengal improved access to land for landless labourers and marginal farmers.

    Punjab and Haryana undertook extensive land consolidationmodern machinery, improved cropping intensity, and raised productivity.

    Ownership titles enabled farmers to access Kisan Credit Card, cooperative banks, and PSB loans

    Reduction in rural poverty and inequality

    Rural poverty fell sharply in Kerala and West Bengal post-tenancy reforms.

    States with stronger reforms saw better literacy, nutrition, and health outcomes.

    Empowerment of women – States like Kerala recognized women’s rights in land inheritance.

    Major Challenges

    Land Reforms is ‘state subject’ – Lack of political will and uniformity in implementation

    Legal loopholes – In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar

    Fragmented Landholdings – Average operational holding has fallen to 0.74 ha (NABARD), making consolidation challenging.

    Inadequate Institutional Capacity – Revenue departments face deficits in manpower, technology, and coordination.

    Despite legal provisions, women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    High Land Litigation – Over two-thirds of civil cases in lower courts involve land disputes

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

  • What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification?

    A cropping pattern is the distribution of various crops within a specific area at a given time. Presently, rice and wheat account for 75% of overall foodgrain production and 37% of net-sown area.

    Challenges Before Crop Diversification

    94% of the total agri and allied sector output is outside MSP support.

    Input constraints – Limited HYV seeds, overdependence on chemical fertilizers. Eg- Seed replacement rate is 35-45% (over 90% in USA)

    Input Subsidy Bias – Subsidies for power, urea, canal water favour water-intensive crops, making alternatives less attractive.

    Low income trap limits farmers ability to invest in High Value crops and Technology.

    High monsoon dependence – About 55% of cultivable land is rainfed – increasing risk and limiting diversification.

    Fragmented landholdings – 86% Small and marginal farmers – restrict mechanisation.

    Shift to commercial crops – Expansion of cotton (Deccan belt) and sugarcane (Punjab-Haryana, Krishna-Godavari basin) crowds out food crops.

    Human factors – Population pressure, subsistence farming, and low risk appetite hinder diversification.

    Institutional weaknesses – Defective land tenure, and poor processing for perishables. Eg- Only 13% mandis digital.

    Market Uncertainty – Lack of assured markets for pulses, oilseeds, millets, fruits, and vegetables limits farmers’ ability to shift.

    Infrastructural gaps – Eg- cold storage can accommodate only 11% of total produce.

    Role of Emerging Technologies in promoting Crop Diversification

    Precision Agriculture – Drones, IoT sensors, GIS enable farmers to manage diverse crops with accurate irrigation, nutrition, and pest control.

    Biotechnology – Stress-tolerant and climate-resilient varieties encourage diversification. Eg- Drought Tolerant High-Yielding Chickpea Variety “SAATVIK (NC 9)”

    Micro-Irrigation – Drip and sprinkler systems make cultivation of horticulture, vegetables, and spices viable even in dry regions.

    Protected Cultivation Technologies – Eg- Polyhouses and shade nets allow off-season vegetables, flowers, and exotics.

    Digital Platforms like e-NAM, agritech apps, FPO digital platforms provide real-time prices and reduce market risk for alternative crops.

    Cold-Chain Technologies support high-value horticulture diversification. Eg: Apple packhouses.

    Biofertilisers improve soil health and make pulses, oilseeds, and millets more viable in rainfed regions.

    Climate-Smart Advisory Systems – AI-based weather advisories, satellite-based crop monitoring help farmers shift to climate-resilient crops.

    Financial inclusion under JAM and DBT under PM KISAN increases capital investment and promotes diversification to high value crops

    When science meets scale, when innovation becomes inclusive, when technology drives transformation, the foundation for great achievements is laid – PM Modi


  • How and to what extent would micro-irrigation help in solving India’s water crisis?

    Micro irrigation is a water-efficient irrigation technique that delivers water directly to plant roots using drip or sprinkler systems, reducing water wastage.

    18% of the world’s population but only 4% of global freshwater resources.

    ~85% of India’s freshwater is used in agriculture (FAO).

    Groundwater depletion:

    1,006 blocks are over-exploited or critical (CGWB, 2023).

    Punjab and Haryana – ~1 metre annual groundwater decline.

    Per capita water availability fell from 1,820 m³ (2001)1,486 m³ (2025).

    Role of Micro-Irrigation in Solving India’s Water Crisis

    Significant Water Saving – saves around 30-50% water compared to flood irrigation.

    Higher Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

    Sprinkler Irrigation – 75%

    Drip Irrigation – 90%

    Higher Yields: Eg- increases yields by 45% for wheat, 20% for gram, and 40% for soybean.

    Reduced Water Loss through evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation

    Lower Fertilizer Use: Through fertigation, fertilizers are applied directly to the plant roots along with water

    Reduced Groundwater Extraction – Eg- Drip in sugarcane in Maharashtra reduced water use by 22-25%.

    Improves Climate Resilience – Provides controlled irrigation during dry spells.

    Micro-irrigation can double irrigation coverage using existing water resources (NITI Aayog).

    Limitations of micro-irrigation

    Low Adoption – micro-irrigation covers only 7.6% of the net sown area

    High Initial Cost – Eg- Drip irrigation costs .

    Regular maintenance needs to avoid clogging, leakage, and damage is technically difficult for farmers.

    Technical Knowledge Gap: lack of know-how to correctly install, operate, and maintain micro-irrigation systems.

    Social and Cultural Barriers: Traditional farming practices and resistance to change.

    Regional imbalance – Eastern and northern states lag.

    Not Suitable for all crops– Eg-Flood irrigation is preferred for water-intensive crops like paddy

    Government Initiatives

    PMKSY – “Per Drop More Crop” – subsidies up to 55%.

    Micro-Irrigation Fund under NABARD – 10000 Cr

    Andhra Pradesh Micro-Irrigation Project (APMIP)

    Micro-irrigation is critical for achieving equitable, efficient and sustainable irrigation management. (“Vision for Sujalam Bharat”)

  • Distinguish between Capital Budget and Revenue Budget. Explain the components of both these Budgets.

    Under Article 112, the Budget comprises the Revenue Budget, which covers routine government income and expenditure, and the Capital Budget, which deals with asset creation and long-term liabilities.

    Difference Between Revenue Budget and Capital Budget

    Components of the Revenue Budget

    Revenue Receipts

    Tax Revenue – Income tax, corporate tax, GST, customs, excise, etc.

    Non-Tax Revenue – Dividends & profits from PSUs/RBI, fees, fines, interest receipts.

    Grants-in-Aid – External grants from other countries/institutions.

    Revenue Expenditure

    Salaries, Pensions & Administrative Costs

    Subsidies – food, fertiliser, petroleum.

    Interest Payments on past borrowings.

    Grants to States & UTs, grants for social services.

    Expenditure on Routine Government Operations – police, defence services (revenue), judiciary.

    Components of the Capital Budget

    Capital Receipts

    Borrowings – Market loans, external loans, treasury bills.

    Disinvestment Proceeds – Sale of government equity in PSUs.

    Recovery of Loans – Repayment from states, PSUs, and others.

    Small Savings & Provident Fund Collections

    Capital Expenditure

    Creation of Assets – Roads, railways, bridges, irrigation, defence capital.

    Loans and Advances – To states, UTs, PSUs, and financial institutions.

    Investment in PSUs and Infrastructure Projects

    A healthy fiscal structure requires containing revenue expenditure and prioritising capital expenditure to strengthen productivity and economic growth.

  • Do you agree that the Indian economy has recently experienced V- shapes recovery? Give reasons in support of your answer.

  • Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product(GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015.

    Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a given period. GDP in India is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO).

    The post-2015 GDP methodology aims to provide a more accurate, data-rich, and globally comparable picture of India’s economy. To improve reliability, there is a need for greater transparency.

  • “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.”Discuss in the light of India’s experience

    The World Bank defines infrastructure as “the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society, enterprise, or system.” It is prerequisite for rapid, inclusive and sustainable growth.

    Importance of Investment in Infrastructure for Rapid Growth

    A 1% increase in infrastructure investment can raise output by 0.4% in the same year and by 1.5% in 4 years. (IMF)

    Modern transport, logistics and energy infrastructure reduce time and transaction costs and increase competitiveness.

    Boosts Manufacturing & Exports – Eg- Port led development under Sagarmala project

    Crowds in domestic private investment and FDI –

    Facilitates Urbanisation and industrialization- Eg- industrial corridors, and smart cities support agglomeration economies and higher output.

    Energy Security through investments in renewables (48 % of the total installed capacity).

    Importance of Investment in Infrastructure for Inclusive Growth

    Bridges Rural-Urban Divide- Rural roads, irrigation networks and decentralised energy systems enhance market access and livelihoods. Eg- PMGSY

    Access to Basic Services – Water supply, sanitation, healthcare facilities, and DPI ensure equitable access for vulnerable groups. Eg- Jal Jeevan Mission

    Balanced Regional Growth- Connectivity in tribal, hilly, and northeastern regions improves mobility, education access, and economic opportunity.

    Employment Generation for low-skilled and semi-skilled workers. Eg- The PM Gati Shakti initiative is expected to create 1 crore+ jobs by 2030.

    Improves standard of living – Eg- over 4Cr houses constructed under PMAY

    Women Empowerment – Eg- SBM improving access to sanitation

    India’s Experience – Achievements and Challenges

    India has the second largest road network in the world (1.5 lakh km National Highway)

    Ports & Logistics: Sagarmala increased port capacity beyond 2,600 MTPA.

    Digital Infrastructure: Aadhaar, UPI, BharatNet deepened digital inclusion.

    Energy: Renewable capacity crossed 240+ GW, improving energy security.

    Challenges

    Lack Of Integrated Policy- India has the second largest infrastructure deficit in the world (after Brazil)

    Financing Constraints: NIP requires Rs 111 lakh crore.

    Delays in Land Acquisition & Clearances slowing project execution. Eg- Mumbai Metro

    Urban Infrastructure Deficits: Eg- 17% population living in slums

    Logistics Inefficiencies: 13-14% logistics cost compared to 8-10% global average

    Poor concession agreements and litigation in PPP projects

    Neglect of social infrastructure – Eg- health and education spending at 1.9% and 4% of GDP only

    Inadequate R&D expenditure (0.7% of GDP) hinder the adoption of innovative solutions.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen PPP Models with better risk-sharing and transparent concession agreements. (Kelkar Committee recommendations)

    Accelerate Gati Shakti Platform for integrated planning and faster clearances.

    Increase Sustainable Financing via green bonds, NIIF, and development finance institutions.

    Focus on Climate-Resilient Infrastructure in coastal, drought-prone and flood-prone regions.

    Sustainable and high-quality infrastructure is a essential for realisation of a $40 Trillion economy by 2047.

  • Discuss the types of organised crimes. Describe the linkages between terrorists and organised crime that exist at the national and transnational levels.

    As per UNODC, organized crime is a continuing criminal enterprise that rationally works to profit from illicit activities that are often in great public demand.

    Types of Organised Crime

    Drug Trafficking (Narco-Trade)- Eg- Recent high-volume seizures of “Meth” in the Arabian Sea via the Makran Coast route.

    Illicit Arms Smuggling- Eg- The use of “Payload Drones” in Punjab to transport pistols and grenades from across the border.

    Human Trafficking- Forced labor and sexual exploitation. Eg- syndicates trafficking Indians to Southeast Asian “Cyber-Slavery” hubs.

    Money Laundering- The process of “cleansing” criminal proceeds. Eg- Use of Layering techniques via Shell companies and Virtual Digital Assets (Crypto).

    Cybercrime (Crime-as-a-Service)- Eg- The 2024 surge in “Digital Arrest” scams operated by transnational gangs.

    FICN (Counterfeiting)- Smuggling Fake Indian Currency Notes to trigger monetary instability.

    Contract Killings & Extortion- Use of violence to “tax” businesses. Eg- Bishnoi gang

    Environmental Crime- Eg- Illegal Red Sandalwood trade in the Seshachalam forests.

    National Level Linkages (Operational & Tactical)

    Infrastructure Sharing- Terrorists use established criminal “rat-lines” for the clandestine movement of personnel. Eg- use of drug networks for terrorist infiltration in J&K

    Logistics support – Eg- D-Company’s role in 1993 Bombay Blasts

    Resource Appropriation- Terror groups adopt criminal tactics like “Tiger Kidnapping” (kidnapping for ransom) to create immediate liquidity.

    Corruption of Local Governance- Both groups collaborate to “buy” local administrative silence, creating pockets of lawlessness.

    Transnational Level Linkages (Strategic & Financial)

    Narco-Terrorism- Terrorist groups taxing or controlling drug trade routes to finance global jihad. Eg- The Taliban using opium revenue from Afghanistan to fund operations.

    Global Hawala Networks- Terror funding is moved across borders using the same illegal financial networks established by crime syndicates.

    The “Black Hole” Effect- In “gray zones,” criminal and terror groups merge into a single entity. Eg- ISIS-K using illegal mining of talc to fund global operations.

    Specialized Alliances- Terrorists outsource technical needs to professional transnational syndicates. Eg- use Dark Net markets by LeT to receive “anonymous” donations.

    Transnational crime acts as a tool of “Grey Zone Warfare” by hostile neighbors to destabilize the economy via drug-pushing.

    Diversion of humanitarian aid in conflict zones (Sahel, Middle East) into the hands of organized terror groups via criminal intermediaries. (FATF report)

    The Crime-Terror nexus creates Black Hole of instability. Addressing this requires Whole-of-Government approach.

    Cyber Security

  • What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organisational, technical and procedural initiatives taken to improve the maritime security.

    11,098 km coastline, an Exclusive Economic Zone of over 2 million sq km, and over 95% of its trade by volume via sea, highlights the need for robust maritime security architecture

    Maritime Security Challenges in India

    The Indian ocean region is ‘New Hotbed’ of security threats – Fareed Zakaria

    Maritime Terrorism- Eg- the 26/11 Mumbai attacks

    Geopolitical Competition from China challenging India’s role as a “Net Security Provider.”

    “dual-use” ports like Hambantota (Sri Lanka) and Gwadar (Pakistan)

    Chinese spy ships in Indian Ocean (Tianwen I)

    Piracy and Armed Robbery-

    Somali piracy in the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea

    Houthi disruptions in the Red Sea

    Transnational Organized Crime- The “Golden Crescent” and “Golden Triangle” routes converge in the IOR. (MHA)

    Human Trafficking- Illegal migration routes across the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea.

    Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing- Eg- Large foreign deep-sea trawlers encroaching on India’s.

    Offshore Asset Vulnerability- Eg- Mumbai High oil rigs and the Great Nicobar Project from state and non-state sabotage.

    Nuclearization of IOR due to AUKUS

    Rising sea levels and the increasing frequency of “Super Cyclones” threaten critical coastal infrastructure. Eg- naval bases and nuclear plants.

    IOR emerging as theater of great-power rivalry – Eg- US-UK base in Diego Garcia

    Initiatives to Improve Maritime Security

    Organisational Initiatives

    Bureau of Port Security (BoPS) for unified regulatory oversight for port and ship security

    National Maritime Security Coordinator (NMSC) to improve coordination between the Navy, Coast Guard, and various ministries.

    Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) as a global hub for real-time information sharing on “White Shipping.”

    Three-Tiered Security Architecture- *

    Indian Navy- Deep-sea and International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL).

    Indian Coast Guard (ICG)- Intermediate waters and EEZ (up to 200 nm).

    Marine Police- Coastal waters (up to 12 nm).

    Technical Initiatives

    Coastal Surveillance Network (CSN) Phase-II- Completion of a chain of 46 static radar stations and AIS (Automatic Identification System).

    Mandatory installation of NavIC-enabled Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) on all fishing vessels.

    Induction of MQ-9B SeaGuardian drones for surveillance of sensitive chokepoints.

    Utilization of ISRO’s GSAT-7 series (Rukmini) for “dark vessel” tracking.

    Project 75I – for more indigenous scorpian class submarine

    Procedural Initiatives

    Indian Maritime Doctrine 2025- formally recognizes “No-War, No-Peace” as a distinct operational category, emphasizing readiness for grey-zone conflicts.

    MAHASAGAR (2025)- fostering security partnerships with IOR littoral states.

    Exercise Sea Vigil- to test the “SOPs” of over 15 different agencies.

    Issuance of biometric ID cards to over 300,000 fishermen.

    A proactive Maritime Domain Awareness is needed for resilient “Blue Economy” and “maritime surakshit Bharat”.

  • What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.

    As per IT Act, 2000, “cyber security” means protecting information, equipment, communication device and information stored therein from unauthorised access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or destruction.

    Elements of cyber security

    Core Principles (The CIA Triad)

    Confidentiality– Keeping sensitive data private from unauthorized access. Eg- encryption

    Integrity– Ensuring data is accurate, trustworthy, and hasn’t been altered. Eg- digital signatures.

    Availability– Ensuring systems are accessible to authorized users when needed. Eg- backups.

    Key Security Domains & Functions

    Network Security– Protecting network infrastructure (firewalls).

    Endpoint Security– Securing devices like laptops, phones (antivirus).

    Application Security– Securing software and apps.

    Data Security- Implementing encryption and Data Loss Prevention (DLP) tools.

    Identity & Access Management (IAM)– Eg- Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)

    Incident Response– Planning for and managing security breaches.

    Disaster Recovery & Business Continuity– Planning for system restoration.

    Security Operations Center- A centralized unit that monitors, detects, and responds in real-time

    Steps Taken to Strengthen Cybersecurity

    DPDP Act, 2023 – imposing penalties up to on Data Fiduciaries for security lapses.

    Centralized Command – designated the National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS) as the nodal agency.

    Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre – provide a real-time platform for banks, and police to freeze fraudulent funds.

    Dedicated CERT-In have been established for critical sectors like Power and Finance.

    CERT-In guidelines mandating annual cybersecurity audits for all critical sector entities by empanelled auditors.

    Zero-Trust Integration- mandatory “Never Trust, Always Verify” architecture for all G2G and G2C digital services.

    Sovereign Technology- deployment of Maya OS across defense and critical ministries.

    The National Quantum Mission (2025) – piloting Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) for high-security government communications.

    Cyber Jagrit Bharat- A nationwide awareness campaign, including a “Cyber Pledge” and webinars for citizens.

    Quad Senior Cyber Group to counter state-sponsored APTs in the Indo-Pacific.

    Signing of UN Convention on Cybercrime (Hanoi convention) to streamline cross-border digital evidence sharing and extradition.

    Challenges That Remain

    Workforce Shortage- 30% talent gap in high-end cybersecurity roles (forensics, malware analysis).

    Legacy Infrastructure- Nearly 57% of Indian organizations still lack basic cyber hygiene (India Cyber Threat Report 2025)

    AI-driven “double extortion” ransomware and Deepfake-as-a-Service are evolving faster than defensive protocols.

    Federal Coordination issues- many State-level cyber cells lack the funding and technical expertise to handle transnational crimes.

    Cross-Border Anonymity- use of proxy servers in non-extradition jurisdictions makes prosecution nearly impossible.

    Import dependency – India imports over 70% of its telecom and IT hardware from China.

    Low Digital literacy – Eg- limited awareness about using MFA, identifying phishing links.

    Compliance Burden – The stringent requirements of the DPDP Act impose a heavy financial burden on small businesses.

    Data Colonization – India generates 20% of global data, yet most of it is processed in offshore data centers

    Addressing these challenges requires viewing cybersecurity not as a technical IT issue but as a National Security Priority that demands a “Whole-of-Society” response.