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GS Paper: GS3

  • What are the challenges and opportunities of food processing sector in the country? How can income of the farmers be substantially increased by encouraging food processing?

    Food processing refers to the transformation of raw agricultural commodities into value-added, marketable, and storable products through physical, chemical, or biological methods.

    Challenges of the Food Processing Sector in India

    Low Level of Processing – Only ~10% of total agricultural produce is processed (vs 60-70% in developed countries).

    Post-harvest losses of 15-20% due to shortage of cold-storage, and transport infrastructure.

    Fragmented Supply Chain – 86% of farmers are small/marginal – limits aggregation

    High Logistics Cost of 13-14% of GDP (vs 8-9% in developed countries).

    Delay in project implementation – Eg- only 25 out of 42 approved Mega Food Parks operational

    Regulatory & Compliance Issues – Complex FSSAI norms and licensing delays discourage small processors.

    Low Exports – 16% of India’s agri-exports are processed products, compared to 25% in the US and 49% in China.

    Micro and small units struggle to access formal credit, collateral, and working capital.

    Skill gap – Only 3% of the food processing workforce is formally trained

    Quality & Safety Gaps – Inconsistent adherence to food safety standards, and limited testing infrastructure. Eg- Rejection of Indian exports by EU.

    Negligible R&D (<0.5% of sectoral GVA) – stall innovation in packaging and product design

    Opportunities of Food Processing Industry in India

    Large agricultural base

    Second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables.

    Wide product spectrum – Includes dairy, fruits & vegetables, meat, fisheries, beverages, ready-to-eat (RTE), and organic foods.

    Lifestyle Shift – 65% of Indians under 35, rising incomes, urbanization & busy lifestyles have boosted demand for ready-to-eat & processed foods.

    Rapid growth in Organised retail and “shopping mall culture”- better supply chain management. Eg- D-mart

    Export potential – India exports processed foods to 200+ countries

    Nearly 70% of food processing units operate in the unorganised MSME sector – generate rural employment and entrepreneurship.

    Increasing Farmers’ Income through Food Processing

    Encourages production of horticulture, millets, oilseeds, spices – create new income sources beyond cereals.

    Strengthening FPOs – Processors procure directly from FPOs, giving assured prices and eliminating middlemen. Eg- Sahyadri FPO in Maharashtra

    Employment generation – rural non-farm jobs in grading, sorting, packaging, logistics, and processing units.

    Promotion of women entrepreneurship – Eg- Lijjat Papad

    Zero-Waste Processing using circular economy models. Eg- converting fruit peels to bio-plastics

    As India moves forward under the Make in India vision, the food processing industry will continue to be a key driver of economic growth, ensuring food security, quality, and global competitiveness.

  • What are the major factors responsible for making rice-wheat system a success? In spite of this success how has this system become bane in India?

    The rice-wheat system emerged as the backbone of Indian agriculture after the Green Revolution. It led to food self-sufficiency, but over-time it has become ecologically and economically unsustainable.

    Major Factors Responsible for the Success of the Rice-Wheat System

    Assured Irrigation- Expansion of canal irrigation and tube wells in Punjab and Haryana.

    MSP and Procurement Support through FCI and PDS gave farmers assured income.

    Favourable Agro-climatic Conditions- alluvial soil, flat terrain and suitable climate of the Indo-Gangetic plains favoured rice-wheat double cropping.

    Mechanisation – Availability of tractors, combine harvesters, threshers, storage facilities and rural roads reduced labour costs and increased efficiency.

    Input Subsidies- Heavy subsidies on electricity, fertilisers and water made cultivation economically attractive.

    Institutional Credit Availability- Access to cooperative banks, KCC and PSBs enabled farmers to invest in modern inputs.

    Export potential – Eg- High demand for Indian Basmati Rice in international markets.

    However, this system has become bane for India

    Excess Use of Fertilizers leads to nutrient imbalances and soil degradation. Eg-Punjab uses 244 kg/ha of fertilizers vs the national average of 140 kg/ha.

    Deteriorating Soil Health

    N:P:K imbalance 7.7:3.1:1.

    Over 30% of Indian soils is degraded

    Groundwater Depletion: Eg- Punjab’s water table dropping 50 cm annually (Central Ground Water Board).

    Decreasing Productivity: Wheat yields have stagnated at 3.5-4 tonnes/ha due to resource depletion and climate change (ICAR, 2023).

    Pollution from Residue Burning: over 20 million tonnes of paddy straw burned annually (SAFAR).

    Increased Fiscal Burden due to high MSP and fertilizer subsidies. Eg- fertilizer subsidies exceeding in 2024-25.

    Reducing agro-biodiversity – focus on only two crops has displaced millets, pulses and oilseeds.

    Neglect of nutri-cereals and pulses has contributed to hidden hunger and malnutrition.

    Climate Vulnerability – Rice-wheat system is highly sensitive to heatwaves, erratic rainfall and declining water availability.

    Way Forward

    Diversification to Millets, Pulses & Oilseeds

    Efficient Water Management – Drip irrigation, System of Rice Intensification (SRI)

    Soil Health Restoration – organic fertilizers, bio-compost, and crop rotation

    Stubble Management Alternatives – Happy Seeder, bio-decomposers, and straw recycling

    Climate-Resilient Varieties

    Rationalise MSP to break the monoculture cycle.

    Crop diversification is key for doubling farmers’ income and nutritional security.

  • Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under depleting scenario.

    India has 18% of the world’s population but only 4% of the freshwater resources. As per NITI Aayog “Composite Water Management Index”, 60 Cr people are experiencing high to extreme water stress.

    ~85% of India’s freshwater is used in agriculture (FAO).

    Groundwater depletion:

    1,006 blocks are over-exploited or critical (CGWB, 2023).

    Punjab and Haryana – ~1 metre annual groundwater decline.

    Per capita water availability fell from 1,820 m³ (2001)1,486 m³ (2025).

    “Day Zero” in cities like Chennai, Bengaluru, and Shimla

    By 2030, water demand could outstrip supply by twofold. (NITI Aayog)

    21 cities could exhaust groundwater by 2030. (NITI Aayog)

    The World Resources Institute ranks India 13th among the 17 most water-stressed nations globally

    2024 Annual Groundwater Quality Report – that 70% of India’s water sources are contaminated

    World Bank projects that climate-induced water scarcity could reduce India’s GDP by up to 12% by 2050

    Measures to improve water management

    Enhancing Water Storage Infrastructure

    Renovation Traditional Water Bodies – Example: Mission Kakatiya (Telangana) and Kudimaramath (Tamil Nadu).

    Farm-Level Storage – Promote farm ponds, percolation tanks, check dams, and contour bunds through MGNREGA. Eg- jalyukta Shivar of Maharashtra

    Rainwater Harvesting – Mandatory rooftop harvesting in water-stressed cities. Eg- Chennai Model

    Interlinking of Rivers – Eg- Projects like Ken-Betwa Link can ease water shortages in Bundelkhand.

    Use recharge wells to replenish aquifers through Atal Bhujal Yojana

    Dam Modernisation to enhance water storage capacity

    Improving Irrigation Efficiency

    Micro-Irrigation Expansion through PMKSY-PDMC. Eg- Drip saves 30-50% water; sprinkler saves 25-35%.

    Canal Modernisation- Improves efficiency from .

    Precision Farming – Use of sensors, fertigation, controlled irrigation for sustainable agriculture and optimal water use.

    Remote Sensing & GIS for Water Accounting – Monitor aquifers, rainfall-runoff, and canal leakages.

    Increase Capital Investment in Irrigation Systems and Fast-track AIBP projects

    Strengthening Community-Led Measures – Eg- Pani Panchayats in Odisha.

    Demand-Side Management

    Crop Diversification – Shift from water-intensive crops (paddy, sugarcane) to millets, pulses, oilseeds, horticulture. Example: Haryana’s Mera Pani Meri Virasat.

    Water Budgeting at Village Level through Gram Sabhas. Eg- Pani Foundation villages in Maharashtra.

    Water Pricing – Rational, volumetric pricing to reduce wastage.

    Water Users Associations (WUAs) – Participatory Irrigation Management for equitable distribution and canal maintenance.

    Incentivise Water Saving – Eg- Punjab’s Pani Bachao Paise Kamao for reducing groundwater usage.

    Implementing Mihir Shah Committee recommendations of One Water Approach by merging CGWB and CWC into a National Water Commission (NWC) is essential to achieve a water-secure economy.

  • Explain the meaning of investment in an economy in terms of capital formation. Discuss the factors to be considered while designing a concession agreement between a public entity and a private entity.

    Investment refers to the creation or addition of capital assets in an economy that enhance its productive capacity. It involves machinery, infrastructure, technology, and human skills.

    Meaning of Investment in Terms of Capital Formation

    Addition to Capital Stock- Eg- Samruddhi Expressway, Foxconn Plant in Chennai.

    Gross Capital Formation (GCF)- additions to fixed assets, inventories, valuables. Eg- Solar Plant in Rajasthan.

    Enhances Productive Capacity- Eg- Dedicated Freight Corridors boosting logistics efficiency.

    Savings and Investment Link- Higher savings enable greater capital formation. Eg- Sovereign Green Bonds funding renewable energy assets.

    Includes Physical, Human and Social Capital- Eg- Skill India Mission, Metro rail projects.

    Creates jobs, improves productivity, accelerates growth. Eg- Sagarmala driving port-led industrialisation.

    Factors to Consider While Designing a Concession Agreement (Public-Private)

    Political / Policy

    Clear Scope Definition- project components, performance standards, service quality benchmarks, and asset ownership.

    Model of partnership – Eg- Hybrid annuity model or BOT Model

    Concession Period based on asset life, investment size, and recovery period. Eg- 20-30 years for highways.

    Economic

    Risk Allocation between government and private entity

    Revenue Model- Eg- tariffs, user charges, annuity payments, or viability gap funding.

    Financial Structure- Terms on capital investment, debt-equity ratio, refinancing rules.

    Social

    Environmental & Social Safeguards- Compliance with EIA and land acquisition laws.

    Transparency and Accountability- Public disclosures, third-party audits, and periodic review.

    Technological

    Performance Metrics- KPIs, service standards, monitoring, penalties, incentives.

    Legal

    Dispute Resolution- arbitration method.

    Renegotiation Rules- framework for handling unforeseen demand or cost shocks.

    Termination Clauses- rules for default, compensation, and asset handback.

    Kelkar Committee recommendations

    Prioritizing service delivery over fiscal benefits in contracts

    Establishing independent sector regulators

    Better risk allocation between stakeholders

    Utilizing advanced risk management techniques

    A well-designed concession agreement ensures efficient public-private collaboration, ultimately leading to sustainable high-quality infrastructure delivery and realisation of a $40 Trillion economy by 2047.

  • Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?

    The GST, implemented on 1 July 2017, unified India’s fragmented indirect tax system into a single, destination-based tax, aimed at creating a ‘one nation, one tax’ System.

    Rationale behind the GST (Compensation to States) Act, 2017

    GST subsumed major state taxes (VAT, entry tax, octroi). To prevent short-term revenue loss, the Act assured 14% annual revenue growth for 5 years (2017-22).

    Addressing Loss of Fiscal Autonomy – Compensation ensured states’ fiscal stability during structural shifts.

    Cooperative Federalism- States agreed to adopt GST in exchange for legal assurance of compensation from the Centre.

    Creating Predictability in Budgeting – Guaranteed revenue helped states plan welfare schemes, salaries, and capital projects without fear of instability.

    Compensation Fund Mechanism- A dedicated GST Compensation Cess (on luxury/sin goods like tobacco, coal, automobiles) was created to finance the compensation pool.

    Impact of COVID-19 on the GST Compensation Fund

    According to the 41st GST Council meeting, states projected a for 2020-21. With an estimated , the shortfall in the GST compensation fund was expected to be .

    was due to GST implementation-related revenue gaps, and

    was attributed to the COVID-19-induced economic shock

    The Centre admitted an unprecedented shortfall, stating it could not fully compensate states from the fund.

    Borrowing Controversy

    The Centre asked states to borrow via RBI under two options.

    Many states (Kerala, Punjab, Chhattisgarh) argued that the borrowing burden should lie with the Centre, not states.

    Breakdown of Consensus in GST Council – For the first time since 2017, the Council saw voting instead of consensus. States alleged weakening of cooperative federalism.

    Increased Fiscal Stress on States – Shortfalls forced states to cut capital expenditure, delay welfare payments, and increase market borrowing.

    States demanded extending the compensation period beyond June 2022 due to pandemic losses

    Strengthening the fiscal framework, improving tax buoyancy, and enhancing transparency in compensation mechanisms are essential to restore trust in India’s cooperative federalism.

  • Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP?

    Potential GDP refers to the maximum sustainable output an economy can produce without generating inflationary pressure, when all resources are fully and efficiently employed.

    Determinants of Potential GDP

    Labour Force & Human Capital – Size, skill, and productivity of the workforce.

    Capital Formation – Investment in infrastructure, machinery, and technology.

    Technology & Innovation – R&D and digital transformation driving productivity.

    Institutional Quality – Governance, regulatory efficiency, and property rights.

    Total Factor Productivity (TFP) – Efficiency in using labour and capital together.

    Prevailing Inflation Rate – Persistent inflation distorts real GDP from its potential level.

    Global Conditions – Protectionism, trade restrictions, and geopolitical tensions. Eg- Tariff Wars

    Factors Inhibiting India from Realizing Potential GDP

    Low Female Labour Force Participation – FLFPR only 41.7% (PLFS) against global average of 48%

    Slow Capital Formation – GFCF at ~29.6% of GDP (2024) vs 34% in 2023.

    Skill Mismatch & Education Gaps – Only 4.7% of workforce formally skilled (NSDC).

    Infrastructure Bottlenecks – Logistics cost ~13% of GDP vs 8% in USA

    Weak Productivity Growth – Low TFP and informal sector dominance. (83% informal sector)

    Regulatory Cholesterol – Delays, compliance burden, weak contract enforcement.

    Way Forward

    Enhance Human Capital – Invest in education, healthcare, and skill development

    Accelerate Investment & Infrastructure Growth through faster project execution under PPP.

    Create safe workplaces, flexible jobs, and childcare support to tap women’s economic potential.

    Increase R&D spending to 2.5% of GDP (currently <1% of GDP) for productivity gains.

    To realize its potential GDP and Viksit Bharat 2047, India must shift from factor accumulation to productivity-driven growth

  • Explain intra-generational and inter-generational issues of equity from the perspective of inclusive growth and sustainable development.

    Inclusive growth and sustainable development emphasise fair distribution of opportunities, resources, and benefits both within the present generation and across future generations.

    Intra-Generational Equity issues (Equity Within the Present Generation)

    Income and Wealth Inequality – the top 1% of adults in India control almost 40% of net personal wealth. (World Inequality Report)

    Social Exclusion – Caste, gender, disability, and minority identity restrict access to education, jobs, assets. Eg- Glass Ceiling for Women

    Poorer communities face greater vulnerability to pollution, floods, heatwaves, violating equity. Eg- Disaster induced migration

    Regional disparities – Eg- BIMARU States lag behind national averages in health, education and income.

    Low female labour force participation (41% vs 48% global average) limits inclusive access to economic opportunities.

    Inter-Generational Equity issues (Equity Across Future Generations)

    Climate change burden on future generations – Eg- Rising sea levels threatening the survival of low-lying island countries.

    Low social mobility- Eg – India ranks 76th in the Global Social Mobility Index (WEF), indicating persistence of inequality across generations.

    Failing to invest in research, innovation, and human capital reduces competitiveness of future generations. (R&D investment only 0.7% of GDP)

    Fiscal Burden – Unsustainable borrowing today limits fiscal space for future welfare and development spending.

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) – increase Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively

    Strengthen progressive taxes, wealth taxes and targeted subsidies to reduce income inequality and expand welfare spending.

    Align national policies with Paris Agreement targets

    Universalise social security, pensions, maternity benefits, and unemployment allowance

    A nexus approach towards sustainability and inclusiveness is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’

  • Analyse the complexity and intensity of terrorism, its causes, linkages and obnoxious nexus. Also, suggest measures required to be taken to eradicate the menace of terrorism

    As per Bruce Hoffman, “Terrorism is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change.”

    Complexity of Terrorism

    Absence of a universally accepted definition makes global consensus and coordination difficult.

    Multi-actor nature – Involves state-sponsored, non-state, proxy and lone-wolf actors

    Decentralised structure limits traceability. Eg- lone wolf attacks

    Transnational character – Funding, training, ideology and operations span across borders.

    Technological sophistication increases operational complexity. Eg- Use of encrypted communication, drones and digital finance.

    Intensity of Terrorism (Global Terrorism Index 2025)

    Over 8,000 terrorism-related deaths globally (2024)

    Islamic State (IS) expanded its operations to 22 countries

    Terrorist attacks jumped by 63% in the West

    India witnessed Pahalgam terrorist attack in 2025

    High psychological impact

    Causes of Terrorism

    Political Causes

    Political instability – Weak or exclusionary governance fuels extremism. Eg- in Syria

    Ideological radicalisation through identity and grievance politics. Eg- ISIS

    State repression – Eg- Militant recruitment in Kashmir exploiting allegations of rights abuses.

    Socio-Economic Causes

    Poverty and unemployment Create fertile ground for recruitment. Eg- in Palestine (Hamas)

    Inequality – Disparity between haves and have-nots fuels resentment.

    Regional underdevelopment and ‘Governance vaccum’- Eg- Insurgency in India’s Northeast

    Geopolitical Causes

    Proxy warfare and state sponsorship – Eg- Pakistan’s policy of bleeding India by thousand cuts

    Regional conflicts – Eg- Iran’s support “Axis of Resistance” including Lebanon’s Hezbollah, Yemen’s Houthis.

    Technological and Global Factors

    Online radicalisation – Eg- Use of Telegram and encrypted platforms by terror outfits.

    Ease of connectivity and funding – Eg- Hawala networks financing terror modules in India

    Linkages and Obnoxious Nexus

    Terrorism-Organised Crime Nexus – Eg- role of D-Company in 1993 Bombay blast

    Terrorism-Narco Nexus – Drug trade finances terror operations and insurgency.

    Terrorism-Religious Extremism Nexus for recruitment and legitimacy.

    Terrorism-Cyber Nexus – Use of social media and encrypted platforms for propaganda

    Terrorism-State and Non-State Actor Nexus. Eg- Pakistan’s support to LeT and JeM

    The zero tolerance against terrorism strategy needs 6-fold approach

    Robust counter-terror legal framework – Swift investigation, prosecution and conviction.

    Strengthening HUMINT (Human Intelligence) and TECHINT (Technological Intelligence).

    SMART Borders (Madhukar Gupta Committee)

    Raising cost of terrorism for Pakistan. Eg- Operation Sindoor

    Human-centric Counterinsurgency

    International Cooperation – Intelligence sharing, financial sanctions and diplomatic pressure on sponsors of terrorism. Eg- FATF Grey Listing

    Thus a holistic strategy is needed for ‘Terror free world’.

    Role of External State and Non-state Actors

  • Keeping in view India’s internal security, analyse the impact of cross-border cyber attacks. Also, discuss defensive measures against these sophisticated attacks.

    As per report of CloudSEK, India emerged as the second most targeted nation in terms of cyber attacks in 2024.

    Impact of Cross-Border Cyber Attacks

    Threat to Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) – Eg – attempts by the Pakistan-linked APT36 group to infiltrate India’s Northern Power Grid

    Economic Destabilization by attacks on financial gateways like UPI or BSE.

    Salami-Slicing of Intellectual Property (IP)- Eg- theft of IP from manufacturing and pharmaceutical sectors to weaken India’s “Make in India” competitive edge.

    State-Sponsored Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs)- Eg- Pakistan-linked actors used “Dance of the Hillary” malware to infiltrate DRDO systems during “Operation Sindoor”

    Compromise of National Defense & Military Intelligence- “Operation FlightNight” targeted Indian defense and energy sectors using malware disguised as an Indian Air Force invitation.

    Psychological Warfare- Eg- Following the Pahalgam attack, Pakistan-linked groups flooded social media with 2 lakh deepfakes and “forged” government documents to spread panic.

    Threat to privacy. Eg- Star Health Insurance breach leaking data of 31 million customers

    “Mass Defacement” – Simultaneously taking down hundreds of government websites to Undermine government authority

    Measures to Strengthen Cyber Security in India

    Legal Measures

    Stringent implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act to hold “Data Fiduciaries” (companies) accountable for breaches.

    Empower the CBI to investigate cybercrime cases nationwide without needing general consent from state. (Parliamentary panel on home affairs)

    Replacing the IT Act, 2000, with the proposed Digital India Act to address modern threats like Deepfakes, AI-driven extortion.

    Institutional Measures

    Expanding the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre to serve as a 24/7 national “War Room” for real-time threat mitigation and interstate coordination.

    Strengthening the NCIIPC to secure “Critical Information Infrastructure” (CII).

    Establishing dedicated cyber-police stations in every district, integrated with the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (1930).

    Policy Measures

    Implementing the National Cyber Security Strategy focusing on Sovereign Cyber Defense and building a “Cyber-Resilient” ecosystem.

    Adhering to the CERT-In Cyber Security Audit Policy, which mandates annual third-party audits for all government and critical sector entities.

    Promoting the Golden Hour Protocol to report financial frauds within the first 2 hours.

    Technological Measures

    Zero-Trust Architecture (ZTA)- Transitioning from traditional perimeter security to a “Never Trust, Always Verify” model for all digital access requests.

    AI-Driven Threat Intelligence- Deploying machine learning algorithms for real-time detection of anomalies and Automated Incident Response (AIR).

    Promoting the “Atmanirbhar” development of indigenous operating systems and security software. Eg- Maya OS

    Global Measures

    Leveraging partnerships like the Quad Senior Cyber Group to share threat intelligence on state-sponsored APTs (Advanced Persistent Threats) in the Indo-Pacific.

    Collaborating with Interpol (Project Gateway) and FATF to track and dismantle the financial backbones of transnational “Cyber Slavery” hubs.

    Social Measures

    Digital Literacy (Cyber Shikshaa)- awareness campaigns like #CyberDost

    Capacity building of the judicial and police workforce through the CyTrain portal

    Cyber Hygiene- Eg- Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) and use of the “Chakshu” portal for reporting suspicious communications.

    As cybercrimes move into the realm of “Grey Zone Warfare,” India’s cyber defense must be proactive rather than reactive.

  • Analyse the multidimensıonal challenges posed by external state and non-state actors, to the internal security of India. Also, discuss measures required to be taken to combat these threats

    Internal security can be defined as the management of security within the border of a country. It involves the maintenance of peace, law and order, upholding the sovereignty of the country and dealing with external state and non-state actors.

    Multidimensional Challenges Posed by External Actors

    Challenges from External State Actors

    Proxy Warfare by Pakistan to ‘Bleed India by thousand cuts’. Eg- Pakistan-backed LeT and JeM in Jammu & Kashmir.

    Border incursions by china. Eg- Galwan clash

    Cyber spionage targeting digital and critical systems. Eg- APT41 (China), targeted Indian telecom, power grids

    Strategic Encirclement under ‘string of pearls’. Eg- Chinese presence at Gwadar, Hambantota and Maldives.

    Disinformation Operations – Use of social media and digital platforms to spread fake news, incite communal unrest, and delegitimize democratic institutions.

    Hybrid Warfare – Eg- use of drones by Pakistan to challenge India’s air defenses during 2025 Operation Sindoor

    Illegal migration along porus border impacting demography in border states and leading to social unrest. Eg- Rohingya infiltration via Bangladesh

    Challenges from External Non-State Actors

    Terrorist Organisations – Violence to create fear and instability. Eg- Red Fort Bombings

    Organized Crime Syndicates – Terror-financing, arms & drug smuggling, extortion, money laundering etc. Eg- D-Company

    Left-Wing Extremists (Naxalites) – Guerrilla attacks on police and destruction of infrastructure. Eg- dantewada attack

    North-East Insurgent Groups – Ethnic militancy, drug and human trafficking along India-Myanmar border. Eg- NSCN (IM), ULFA

    Cyber Criminals – Data breaches, espionage, financial frauds, infrastructure sabotage etc. Eg- RedEcho group (China-linked)

    Foreign-Funded NGOs – Anti-development protests, exploitation of tribal/ethnic fault lines (loss of 2% of GDP – IB Report).

    Narco-Terrorism – Drug trade funding violence and terrorism. Eg- Heroin and arms smuggling via Punjab border.

    Measures required

    Policy measures

    Finalisation of National security doctrine

    Federal coordination through national internal security council

    Security and Intelligence Measures

    Strengthening HUMINT (Human Intelligence) and TECHINT (Technological Intelligence).

    SMART Borders (Madhukar Gupta Committee)

    Legal and Institutional Measures

    Robust Counter-Terror and AML Frameworks – Swift investigation, prosecution and conviction under UAPA and PMLA

    Cyber Security Capacity – Expansion of CERT-In, cyber commands and AI-based monitoring.

    Diplomatic Measures

    International Cooperation through intelligence sharing and financial sanctions. Eg- FATF Grey Listing

    Raising cost of terrorism for Pakistan. Eg- Operation Sindoor

    Social and developmental Measures

    De-radicalisation and Counselling of youth

    Heart and mind strategy – Eg- Operation Sadbhavana (Goodwill) of Indian Army

    Employment and Skill Development to mainstream youth. Eg- Udaan Scheme

    Technological Measures

    Use of AI, Big Data and Satellites – Predictive policing and early threat detection.

    As per Kautilya, security witthin borders is indispensible for achieving Yogakshema – security, welfare, and prosperity of citizens